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NASA Earth Scientists Take Flight, Set Sail to Verify PACE Satellite Data
5 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)- More than 100 scientists will participate in a field campaign involving a research vessel and two aircraft this month to verify the accuracy of data collected by NASA’s new PACE satellite: the Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem mission.
- The process of data validation includes researchers comparing PACE data with data collected by similar, Earth-based instruments to ensure the measurements match up.
- Since the mission’s Feb. 8, 2024 launch, scientists around the world have successfully completed several data validation campaigns; the September deployment — PACE-PAX — is its largest.
From sea to sky to orbit, a range of vantage points allow NASA Earth scientists to collect different types of data to better understand our changing planet. Collecting them together, at the same place and the same time, is an important step used to verify the accuracy of satellite data.
NASA’s Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem (PACE) satellite launched in February 2024 and is collecting observations of the ocean and measuring atmospheric particle and cloud properties. This data will help inform scientists and decision makers about the health of Earth’s ocean, land surfaces, and atmosphere and the interactions between them.
Technicians work to process the NASA’s Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem (PACE) observatory on a spacecraft dolly in a high bay at the Astrotech Space Operations Facility near the agency’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida on Monday, Dec. 4, 2023. Credit: NASA/Kim Shiflett
To make sure the data from PACE’s instruments accurately represent the ocean and the atmosphere, scientists compare (or “validate”) the data collected from orbit with measurements they collect at or near Earth’s surface. The mission’s biggest validation campaign, called PACE Postlaunch Airborne eXperiment (PACE-PAX), began on Sept. 3, 2024, and will last the entire month.
“If we want to have confidence in the observations from PACE, we need to validate those observations,” said Kirk Knobelspiesse, mission scientist for PACE-PAX and an atmospheric scientist at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. “This field campaign is focused on doing just that.”
Scientists will make measurements both from aircraft and ships. Based out of three locations across California — Marina, Santa Barbara, and NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center in Edwards — the campaign includes more than 100 people working in the field and several dozen instruments.
“This campaign allows us to validate data for both the atmosphere and the ocean, all in one campaign,” said Brian Cairns, deputy mission scientist for PACE-PAX and an atmospheric scientist at NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City.
On the ocean, ships, including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) research vessel Shearwater, will gather data on ocean biology and the optical properties of the water. Scientists onboard will gather water samples to help define the types of phytoplankton at different locations and their relative abundance, something that PACE’s hyperspectral Ocean Color Instrument measures from orbit.
Members of the PACE-PAX team – from left to right, Cecile Carlson, Adam Ahern (NOAA), Dennis Hamaker (NPS), Luke Ziemba, and Michael Shook (NASA Langley Research Center) – in front of the Twin Otter aircraft as they prep for the start of the campaign. Credit: Judy Alfter/NASA
Overhead, a Twin Otter research aircraft operated by the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California, will collect data on the atmosphere. At altitudes of up to 10,000 feet, the aircraft will sample and measure cloud droplet sizes, aerosol sizes, and the amount of light that those particles scatter and absorb. These are the atmospheric properties that PACE observes with its two polarimeters, SPEXOne and HARP2.
At a higher altitude — approximately 70,000 feet up — NASA’s ER-2 aircraft will provide a complementary view from above clouds, looking down on the atmosphere and ocean in finer detail than the satellite, but with a narrower view.
The NASA ER-2 high-altitude aircraft preparing for flight on Jan. 29, 2023. The aircraft is based at NASA’s Armstrong Flight Research Center Building 703 in Palmdale, California.Credit: NASA/Carla Thomas
The plane will carry several instruments that are similar to those on PACE, including two prototypes of PACE’s polarimeters, called SPEXAirborne and AirHARP. In addition, two instruments called the Portable Remote Imaging SpectroMeter and Pushbroom Imager for Cloud and Aerosol Research and Development — from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasedena, California, and NASA’s Ames Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley, respectively — will measure essentially all the wavelengths of visible light (color). The remote sensing measurements are key for scientists who want to test the methods they use to analyze PACE satellite data.
Together, the instruments on the ER-2 approximate the data that PACE gathers and complement the in situ measurements from the ocean research vessel and the Twin Otter.
As the field campaign team gathers data, PACE will be observing the same areas of the ocean surface and atmosphere. Once the campaign is over, scientists will look at the data PACE returned and compare them to the measurements they took from the other three vantage points.
“Once you launch the satellite, there’s no more tinkering you can do,” said Ivona Cetinic, deputy mission scientist for PACE-PAX and an ocean scientist at NASA Goddard.
Though the scientists cannot alter the satellite anymore, the algorithms designed to interpret PACE data can be adjusted to make the measurements more accurate. Validation checks from campaigns like PACE-PAX help scientists ensure that PACE will be able to return accurate data about our oceans and atmosphere — critical to better understand our changing planet and its interconnected systems — for years to come.
“The ocean and atmosphere are such changing environments that it’s really important to validate what we see,” Cetinic said. “Understanding the accuracy of the view from the satellite is important, so we can use the data to answer important questions about climate change.”
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.
Share Details Last Updated Sep 04, 2024 EditorKate D. RamsayerContactErica McNameeerica.s.mcnamee@nasa.govLocationGoddard Space Flight Center Related Terms Explore More 5 min read New NASA Satellite To Unravel Mysteries About Clouds, Aerosols Article 9 months ago 6 min read NASA Wants to Identify Phytoplankton Species from Space. Here’s Why. Article 1 year ago 4 min read NASA’s PACE Data on Ocean, Atmosphere, Climate Now Available Article 5 months ago'There was some tension in the room', NASA says of decision to bring Boeing's Starliner spacecraft home without astronauts
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NASA Astronaut Don Pettit’s Science of Opportunity on Space Station
3 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater) A fisheye lens attached to an electronic still camera was used to capture this image of NASA astronaut Don Pettit.NASA
Science ideas are everywhere. Some of the greatest discoveries have come from tinkering and toying with new concepts and ideas. NASA astronaut Don Pettit is no stranger to inventing and discovering. During his previous missions, Pettit has contributed to advancements for human space exploration aboard the International Space Station resulting in several published scientific papers and breakthroughs.
Pettit, accompanied by cosmonauts Alexey Ovchinin and Ivan Vagner, will launch to the orbiting laboratory in September 2024. In preparation for his fourth spaceflight, read about previous “science of opportunity” experiments Pettit performed during his free time with materials readily available to the crew or included in his personal kit.
Have you ever noticed a white bubble inside the ice in your ice tray at home? This is trapped air that accumulates in one area due to gravity. Pettit took this knowledge, access to a -90° Celsius freezer aboard the space station, and an open weekend to figure out how water freezes in microgravity compared to on Earth. This photo uses polarized light to show thin frozen water and the visible differences from the ice we typically freeze here on Earth, providing more insight into physics concepts in microgravity.
Space Cup NASA astronaut Don Pettit demonstrates how surface tension, wetting, and container shape hold coffee in the space cup.NASA
Microgravity affects even the most mundane tasks, like sipping your morning tea. Typically, crews drink beverages from a specially sealed bag with a straw. Using an overhead transparency film, Pettit invented the prototype of the Capillary Beverage, or Space Cup. The cup uses surface tension, wetting, and container shape to mimic the role of gravity in drinking on Earth, making drinking beverages in space easier to consume and showing how discoveries aboard station can be used to design new systems.
Planetary FormationTo view this video please enable JavaScript, and consider upgrading to a web browser that supports HTML5 video
Astronaut Don Pettit demonstrates a mixture of coffee grounds and sugar sticking together in microgravity to understand planetary formation. NASAUsing materials that break into very small particles, such as table salt, sugar, and coffee, Pettit experimented to understand planetary formation. A crucial early step in planet formation is the aggregation or clumping of tiny particles, but scientists do not fully understand this process. Pettit placed different particulate mixtures in plastic bags, filled them with air, thoroughly shook the bags, and observed that the particles clumped within seconds due to what appears to be an electrostatic process. Studying the behavior of tiny particles in microgravity may provide valuable insight into how material composition, density, and turbulence play a role in planetary formation.
Orbital Motion Charged water particles orbit a knitting needle, showing electrostatic processes in space. NASA
Knitting needles made of different materials arrived aboard station as personal crew items. Pettit electrically charged the needles by rubbing each one with paper. Then, he released charged water from a Teflon syringe and observed the water droplets orbit the knitting needle, demonstrating electrostatic orbits in microgravity. The study was later repeated in a simulation that included atmospheric drag, and the 3D motion accurately matched the orbits seen in the space station demonstration. These observations could be analogous to the behavior of charged particles in Earth’s magnetic field and prove useful in designing future spacecraft systems.
Astrophotography Top: NASA astronaut Don Pettit photographed in the International Space Station cupola surrounded by cameras. Bottom: Star trails photographed by NASA astronaut Don Pettit in March of 2012.NASA
An innovative photographer, Pettit has used time exposure, multiple cameras, infrared, and other techniques to contribute breathtaking images of Earth and star trails from the space station’s unique viewpoint. These photos contribute to a database researchers use to understand Earth’s changing landscapes, and this imagery can inspire the public’s interest in human spaceflight.
Christine Giraldo
International Space Station Research Communications Team
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A Review of Humanity’s Planned Expansion Between the Earth and the Moon
Between Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and the Moon, there is a region of space measuring 384,400 km (238,855 mi) wide known as Cislunar space. In the coming decades, multiple space agencies will send missions to this region to support the development of infrastructure that will lead to a permanent human presence on the Moon. This includes orbital and surface habitats, landing pads, surface vehicles, technologies for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU), and other elements that will enable the long-term exploration and development of the lunar surface.
For all parties concerned, Cislunar space holds immense potential in terms of scientific, commercial, and military applications. The vastly increased level of activity on and around the Moon makes space domain awareness (SDA) – knowledge of all operations within a region of space – paramount. It is also necessary to ensure the continued success and utilization of the covered region. In a recent paper, a team of aerospace engineers considered the missions planned for the coming decades and evaluated the state and shortcomings of their space domain awareness.
The study was led by Brian Baker-McEvilly, an aerospace engineering graduate student at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University (ERAU). He was joined by David Canales, an assistant professor of aerospace engineering at ERAU, and Surabhi Bhadauria and Carolin Frueh, a Ph.D. candidate and an assistant professor at Purdue University’s School of Aeronautics and Astronautics. The paper that describes their findings recently appeared online and is being considered for publication by
NASA’s Lunar Surface Sustainability Concept, which includes the Artemis Program. Credit: NASA Space Domain AwarenessAlso known as “space situational awareness,” SDA is essential to operations in space. As Baker-McEvilly explained to Universe Today via email:
“SDA is essentially the concept of having comprehensive knowledge of all objects in a specific region without necessarily having direct communication with those objects. It is essential for the safety and security of spacecraft as it provides valuable information on objects in their vicinity that have the potential to influence the outcome of their mission. Some general examples of the importance of SDA are the information helps avoid collisions, ensures accurate tracking information, and provides knowledge on other space activities.”
As NASA states, the goal of the Artemis Program is to “create a sustained program of lunar exploration and development.” Similarly, China, Roscosmos, and the ESA hope to create lunar habitats and related infrastructure to allow for a permanent human presence on the Moon. A key element of these programs is to create habitats in the Moon’s southern polar region (the South Pole-Aitken Basin). These activities will require considerable support in the form of payload deliveries, and the export of lunar resources will similarly require regular missions to and from the lunar surface. Given this level of activity, SDA will be more vital than ever.
Many PlansAs per the Artemis Program, NASA intends to conduct the first circumlunar flight with a crewed Orion spacecraft (Artemis II) no sooner than September 2025. This will be followed by Artemis III in September 2026, the first crewed mission to the lunar surface since Apollo 17 in 1972. This will be accomplished by launching a crewed Orion spacecraft using the Space Launch System (SLS) to lunar orbit. The Human Landing System (HLS) provided by SpaceX – the Starship HLS – will launch separately, refuel in orbit, and then rendezvous with the Orion spacecraft around the Moon.
Once the transfer of two astronauts to the HLS is complete, they will fly down to the lunar surface and spend about 30 days conducting experiments and retrieving samples. Beyond Artemis III, NASA will begin to focus on deploying the core elements of the Lunar Gateway, which will launch in 2027 aboard a Falcon Heavy rocket. The Artemis IV mission will follow in September 2028 and will see a crew of four transfer from an Orion spacecraft to the Lunar Gateway for the first time. After that, NASA intends to send a mission a year to the lunar surface and deploy the elements of the Artemis Base Camp. These will include the following:
- Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV): a rover that will transport crew around the landing zone
- Habitability Mobility Platform (HMP): a pressurized rover that will enable crews to take trips across the lunar surface lasting up to 45 days
- Lunar Foundation Surface Habitat (LFSH): a stationary habitat that will house as many as four crew members on shorter surface stays
In addition, China and Russia have announced their intentions to create the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS), which would rival NASA’s proposed infrastructure. The proposed timeline involves three phases. The Reconnaissance phase will conclude with the Chang’e-7 mission (launching in 2026), which will continue to explore the lunar surface around the South Pole-Aitken Basin to scout for resources and assess possible sites for a future habitat. Phase Two, Construction, will occur between 2026 and 2035 and will see the deployment of the elements that make up the ILRS.
Meanwhile, the European Space Agency (ESA) has made multiple studies and proposals for an international lunar base that would serve the same purpose as the International Space Station (ISS). Previous proposals include the ESA’s Moon Village, which consisted of a facility extending beneath the surface and a dome covered in regolith that would allow access to the surface. This was followed in 2019 with the ESA and international architecture firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) proposing a series of semi-inflatable modules deployed along the rim of a lunar crater.
The latest concept was another collaborative effort between the ESA and the international architecture firm Hassel. Their proposal, the Lunar Habitat Master Plan, consists of a modular, scalable habitat system that can accommodate a settlement of up to 144 people. As part of their study, Baker-McEvilly and his colleagues reviewed these plans and identified two major trends. As he related.
“Two key trends emerge when looking over these missions; the importance of establishing sustainable operations and the strategic value of the Lunar South Pole. Many future missions have objectives to test new technologies that support sustainable operations on the Moon, such as water harvesting methods from Lunar regolith for astronauts, efficient landing methods to support constant movement to and from the surface of the Moon, or utilizing orbital trajectories that require little fuel to remain within.
“The Lunar South Pole is a key piece of Cislunar space as it is an efficient geographic location for these sustainable operations. The South Pole possesses permanently shadowed craters that contain concentrations of water within the regolith. Also, the near-rectilinear halo orbit (NRHO) that will house Gateway spends the majority of its trajectory within line of sight of the South Pole and requires very little fuel to maintain under outside perturbations.”
Getting ThereAnother key aspect of their study was the dynamics of the Cislunar environment and the challenges of sending spacecraft from the Earth to the Moon. These challenges are well-known, thanks to decades of sending robotic missions there, not to mention crewed missions in the form of the Apollo Program. In the coming decades, this region is expected to become rather crowded with satellites, spacecraft, the Lunar Gateway, and other orbital facilities. Things are made more complicated by the fact that any object in Cislunar space will have to contend with the Three-Body Problem. Said Baker-McEvilly:
“[The] dynamics of the Cislunar realm become challenging due to the introduction of the third body in the orbital mechanics problem. As of now, the three-body problem does not have a closed-form solution, and a spacecraft under the influence of both the Earth and Moon no longer moves in the traditional two-body Keplerian sense that many are familiar with. This causes many of the traditional methods in astrodynamics to break down, thus requiring new models and methods to solve problems.”
In the end, they identified a few families of orbits that highlight the unique geometry of periodic trajectories in the Three-Body Problem, as well as orbits that may have strategic use in the future. However, as Baker-McEvilly added, these trajectories are not all-encompassing, and many more exist that have been well-documented.
ShortcomingsUpon reviewing the existing and anticipated missions that will be going to the Moon in the coming decades, Baker-McEvilly and his colleagues identified several shortcomings where SDA was concerned. They also provide recommendations on how these can be addressed. As he indicated:
“The SDA methods used to monitor objects about the Earth that rely on Earth-based sensors do not directly translate to being able to view objects in Cislunar space. The significant distance an Earth-based sensor must cover to reach areas of Cislunar space is outside the capabilities of many sensors, especially radar systems. For the sensors capable of spanning this distance, such as the Deep Space Network, they are often already overtasked and are too valuable to only be dedicated to SDA.
“Another shortcoming is the challenging illumination conditions optical sensors must overcome to view objects deep in Cislunar space. Issues such as the Moon physically blocking view of missions on the far-side, or the light reflected off the Moon washing out light reflected off a spacecraft hinders the capabilities of optical sensors. As a result, there are important regions of Cislunar space that are not always in view by current sensor networks.”
Artist’s representation of Cislunar space, with distances included. Credit: Paul Spudis.As Baker-McEvilly noted, researchers are investigating many approaches to address the gap in Cislunar SDA capabilities. Some possibilities include placing sensors on the Moon, improving the network of Earth-based sensors, or implementing constellations of satellite-based sensors throughout Cislunar space. In his opinion, some combination of these solutions is best suited to solving the SDA gap. He also hopes their study provides researchers, students, and those interested in lunar exploration with a foundation on the current state of Cislunar space and the issues it faces.
“The key issues highlighted across the analysis in Cislunar exploration and SDA may incline some readers to pay more attention to these points and come up with their own work that contributes to the solution or prevent similar failures from repeating themselves,” he said.
Further Reading: arXiv
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