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NASA’s Parker Solar Probe Spies Solar Wind ‘U-Turn’
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NASA’s Parker Solar Probe Spies Solar Wind ‘U-Turn’Images captured by NASA’s Parker Solar Probe as the spacecraft made its record-breaking closest approach to the Sun in December 2024 have now revealed new details about how solar magnetic fields responsible for space weather escape from the Sun — and how sometimes they don’t.
Like a toddler, our Sun occasionally has disruptive outbursts. But instead of throwing a fit, the Sun spews magnetized material and hazardous high-energy particles that drive space weather as they travel across the solar system. These outbursts can impact our daily lives, from disrupting technologies like GPS to triggering power outages, and they can also imperil voyaging astronauts and spacecraft. Understanding how these solar outbursts, called coronal mass ejections (CMEs), occur and where they are headed is essential to predicting and preparing for their impacts at Earth, the Moon, and Mars.
Images taken by Parker Solar Probe in December 2024, and published Thursday in the Astrophysical Journal Letters, have revealed that not all magnetic material in a CME escapes the Sun — some makes it back, changing the shape of the solar atmosphere in subtle, but significant, ways that can set the course of the next CME exploding from the Sun. These findings have far-reaching implications for understanding how the CME-driven release of magnetic fields affects not only the planets, but the Sun itself.
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“These breathtaking images are some of the closest ever taken to the Sun and they’re expanding what we know about our closest star,” said Joe Westlake, heliophysics division director at NASA Headquarters in Washington. “The insights we gain from these images are an important part of understanding and predicting how space weather moves through the solar system, especially for mission planning that ensures the safety of our Artemis astronauts traveling beyond the protective shield of our atmosphere.”
Parker Solar Probe reveals solar recycling in actionAs Parker Solar Probe swept through the Sun’s atmosphere on Dec. 24, 2024, just 3.8 million miles from the solar surface, its Wide-Field Imager for Solar Probe, or WISPR, observed a CME erupt from the Sun. In the CME’s wake, elongated blobs of solar material were seen falling back toward the Sun.
This type of feature, called “inflows”, has previously been seen from a distance by other NASA missions including SOHO (Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, a joint mission with ESA, the European Space Agency) and STEREO (Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory). But Parker Solar Probe’s extreme close-up view from within the solar atmosphere reveals details of material falling back toward the Sun and on scales never seen before.
“We’ve previously seen hints that material can fall back into the Sun this way, but to see it with this clarity is amazing,” said Nour Rawafi, the project scientist for Parker Solar Probe at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, which designed, built, and operates the spacecraft in Laurel, Maryland. “This is a really fascinating, eye-opening glimpse into how the Sun continuously recycles its coronal magnetic fields and material.”
Insights on inflowsFor the first time, the high-resolution images from Parker Solar Probe allowed scientists to make precise measurements about the inflow process, such as the speed and size of the blobs of material pulled back into the Sun. These previously hidden details provide scientists with new insights into the physical mechanisms that reconfigure the solar atmosphere.
1. The process that creates inflows begins with a solar eruption known as a coronal mass ejection (CME). CMEs are often triggered by twisted magnetic field lines from the Sun that explosively snap and realign in a process called magnetic reconnection. This magnetic explosion kicks out a burst of charged particles and magnetic fields — the CME. NASA 2.As the CME travels outward from the Sun, the CME expands. Eventually, it pushes through solar magnetic field lines to escape into space. NASA 3. The magnetic field lines torn open by the CME rejoin to form new magnetic loops that get squeezed together. NASA 4. In some cases, the compressed magnetic field lines tear apart. This forms separate magnetic loops, some of which travel outward from the Sun and others that connect back to the Sun. As these loops contract back into the Sun, they drag down blobs of nearby solar material — forming inflows. NASAThe CMEs are often triggered by twisted magnetic field lines that explosively snap and realign in a process called magnetic reconnection. This magnetic explosion kicks out a burst of charged particles and magnetic fields — a CME.
As the CME travels outward from the Sun, it expands, in some cases causing nearby magnetic field lines to tear apart like the threads of an old piece of cloth pulled too tight. The torn magnetic field quickly mends itself, creating separate magnetic loops. Some of the loops travel outward from the Sun, and others stitch back to the Sun, forming inflows.
“It turns out, some of the magnetic field released with the CME does not escape as we would expect,” said Angelos Vourlidas, WISPR project scientist and researcher at Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory. “It actually lingers for a while and eventually returns to the Sun to be recycled, reshaping the solar atmosphere in subtle ways.”
An important result of this magnetic recycling is that as the inflows contract back into the Sun, they drag down blobs of nearby solar material and ultimately affect the magnetic fields swirling beneath. This interaction reconfigures the solar magnetic landscape, potentially altering the trajectories of subsequent CMEs that may emerge from the region.
“The magnetic reconfiguration caused by inflows may be enough to point a secondary CME a few degrees in a different direction,” Vourlidas said. “That’s enough to be the difference between a CME crashing into Mars versus sweeping by the planet with no or little effects.”
Scientists are using the new findings to improve their models of space weather and the Sun’s complex magnetic environment. Ultimately, this work may help scientists better predict the impact of space weather across the solar system on longer timescales than currently possible.
“Eventually, with more and more passes by the Sun, Parker Solar Probe will help us be able to continue building the big picture of the Sun’s magnetic fields and how they can affect us,” Rawafi said. “And as the Sun transitions from solar maximum toward minimum, the scenes we’ll witness may be even more dramatic.”
By Mara Johnson-Groh
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.
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Stellar Jet
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NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope captured a blowtorch of seething gasses erupting from a volcanically growing monster star in this image released on Sept. 10, 2025. Stellar jets, which are powered by the gravitational energy released as a star grows in mass, encode the formation history of the protostar. This image provides evidence that protostellar jets scale with the mass of their parent stars—the more massive the stellar engine driving the plasma, the larger the resulting jet.
Image credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, Yu Cheng (NAOJ); Image Processing: Joseph DePasquale (STScI)
Stellar Jet
NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope captured a blowtorch of seething gasses erupting from a volcanically growing monster star in this image released on Sept. 10, 2025. Stellar jets, which are powered by the gravitational energy released as a star grows in mass, encode the formation history of the protostar. This image provides evidence that protostellar jets scale with the mass of their parent stars—the more massive the stellar engine driving the plasma, the larger the resulting jet.
Image credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI, Yu Cheng (NAOJ); Image Processing: Joseph DePasquale (STScI)
NASA’s Webb Detects Thick Atmosphere Around Broiling Lava World
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Illustration: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI)
Researchers using NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope have detected the strongest evidence yet for an atmosphere on a rocky planet outside our solar system, as NASA leads the world in exploring the universe from the Moon to Mars and beyond. Observations of the ultra-hot super-Earth TOI-561 b suggest that the exoplanet is surrounded by a thick blanket of gases above a global magma ocean. The results help explain the planet’s unusually low density and challenge the prevailing wisdom that relatively small planets so close to their stars are not able to sustain atmospheres.
Image A: Super-Earth Exoplanet TOI-561 b and Its Star (Artist’s Concept) This artist’s concept shows what the hot super-Earth exoplanet TOI-561 b and its star could look like based on observations from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope and other observatories. Webb data suggests that the planet is surrounded by a thick atmosphere above a magma ocean. Illustration: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI)With a radius roughly 1.4 times Earth’s, and an orbital period less than 11 hours, TOI-561 b falls into a rare class of objects known as ultra-short period exoplanets. Although its host star is only slightly smaller and cooler than the Sun, TOI-561 b orbits so close to the star — less than one million miles (one-fortieth the distance between Mercury and the Sun) — that it must be tidally locked, with the temperature of its permanent dayside far exceeding the melting temperature of typical rock.
“What really sets this planet apart is its anomalously low density,” said Johanna Teske, staff scientist at Carnegie Science Earth and Planets Laboratory and lead author on a paper published Thursday in The Astrophysical Journal Letters. “It’s not a super-puff, but it is less dense than you would expect if it had an Earth-like composition.”
Image B: Super-Earth Exoplanet TOI-561 b (Artist’s Concept) An artist’s concept shows what a thick atmosphere above a vast magma ocean on exoplanet TOI-561 b could look like. Measurements captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope suggest that in spite of the intense radiation it receives from its star, TOI-561 b is not a bare rock. Illustration: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI)One explanation the team considered for the planet’s low density was that it could have a relatively small iron core and a mantle made of rock that is not as dense as rock within Earth. Teske notes that this could make sense: “TOI-561 b is distinct among ultra-short period planets in that it orbits a very old (twice as old as the Sun), iron-poor star in a region of the Milky Way known as the thick disk. It must have formed in a very different chemical environment from the planets in our own solar system.” The planet’s composition could be representative of planets that formed when the universe was relatively young.
But an exotic composition can’t explain everything. The team also suspected that TOI-561 b might be surrounded by a thick atmosphere that makes it look larger than it actually is. Although small planets that have spent billions of years baking in blazing stellar radiation are not expected to have atmospheres, some show signs that they are not just bare rock or lava.
To test the hypothesis that TOI-561 b has an atmosphere, the team used Webb’s NIRSpec (Near-Infrared Spectrograph) to measure the planet’s dayside temperature based on its near-infrared brightness. The technique, which involves measuring the decrease in brightness of the star-planet system as the planet moves behind the star, is similar to that used to search for atmospheres in the TRAPPIST-1 system and on other rocky worlds.
If TOI-561 b is a bare rock with no atmosphere to carry heat around to the nightside, its dayside temperature should be approaching 4,900 degrees Fahrenheit (2,700 degrees Celsius). But the NIRSpec observations show that the planet’s dayside appears to be closer to 3,200 degrees Fahrenheit (1,800 degrees Celsius) — still extremely hot, but far cooler than expected.
Image C: Super-Earth Exoplanet TOI-561 b (NIRSpec Emission Spectrum) An emission spectrum captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope in May 2024 shows the brightness of different wavelengths of near-infrared light emitted by exoplanet TOI-561 b. Comparing the data to models suggests that the planet is surrounded by a volatile-rich atmosphere. Illustration: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI); Science: Johanna Teske (Carnegie Science Earth and Planets Laboratory), Anjali Piette (University of Birmingham), Tim Lichtenberg (Groningen), Nicole Wallack (Carnegie Science Earth and Planets Laboratory)To explain the results, the team considered a few different scenarios. The magma ocean could circulate some heat, but without an atmosphere, the nightside would probably be solid, limiting flow away from the dayside. A thin layer of rock vapor on the surface of the magma ocean is also possible, but on its own would likely have a much smaller cooling effect than observed.
“We really need a thick volatile-rich atmosphere to explain all the observations,” said Anjali Piette, coauthor from the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom.
“Strong winds would cool the dayside by transporting heat over to the nightside. Gases like water vapor would absorb some wavelengths of near-infrared light emitted by the surface before they make it all the way up through the atmosphere. (The planet would look colder because the telescope detects less light.) It’s also possible that there are bright silicate clouds that cool the atmosphere by reflecting starlight.”
While the Webb observations provide compelling evidence for such an atmosphere, the question remains: How can a small planet exposed to such intense radiation can hold on to any atmosphere at all, let alone one so substantial? Some gases must be escaping to space, but perhaps not as efficiently as expected.
“We think there is an equilibrium between the magma ocean and the atmosphere. At the same time that gases are coming out of the planet to feed the atmosphere, the magma ocean is sucking them back into the interior,” said co-author Tim Lichtenberg from the University of Groningen in the Netherlands. “This planet must be much, much more volatile-rich than Earth to explain the observations. It’s really like a wet lava ball.”
These are the first results from Webb’s General Observers Program 3860, which involved observing the system continuously for more than 37 hours while TOI-561 b completed nearly four full orbits of the star. The team is currently analyzing the full data set to map the temperature all the way around the planet and narrow down the composition of the atmosphere.
“What’s really exciting is that this new data set is opening up even more questions than it’s answering,” said Teske.
The James Webb Space Telescope is the world’s premier space science observatory. Webb is solving mysteries in our solar system, looking beyond to distant worlds around other stars, and probing the mysterious structures and origins of our universe and our place in it. Webb is an international program led by NASA with its partners, ESA (European Space Agency) and CSA (Canadian Space Agency).
To learn more about Webb, visit:
Related InformationRead more: Can Rocky Worlds Orbiting Red Dwarf Stars Maintain Atmospheres?
Explore more: ViewSpace Exoplanet Variety: Atmosphere
Explore more: How to Study Exoplanets: Webb and Challenges
Explore more: How Do We Learn About a Planet’s Atmosphere?
Read more: NASA’s Webb Hints at Possible Atmosphere Surrounding Rocky Exoplanet
Related For Kids Related Images & Videos Super-Earth Exoplanet TOI-561 b and Its Star (Artist’s Concept)This artist’s concept shows what the hot super-Earth exoplanet TOI-561 b and its star could look like based on observations from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope and other observatories. Webb data suggests that the planet is surrounded by a thick atmosphere above a magma ocean.
Super-Earth Exoplanet TOI-561 b (Artist’s Concept)
An artist’s concept shows what a thick atmosphere above a vast magma ocean on exoplanet TOI-561 b could look like. Measurements captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope suggest that in spite of the intense radiation it receives from its star, TOI-561 b is not a bare rock.
Super-Earth Exoplanet TOI-561 b (NIRSpec Emission Spectrum)
An emission spectrum captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope in May 2024 shows the brightness of different wavelengths of near-infrared light emitted by exoplanet TOI-561 b. Comparing the data to models suggests that the planet is surrounded by a volatile-rich atmosphere.
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NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center
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Space Telescope Science Institute
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NASA’s Webb Detects Thick Atmosphere Around Broiling Lava World
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Illustration: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI)
Researchers using NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope have detected the strongest evidence yet for an atmosphere on a rocky planet outside our solar system, as NASA leads the world in exploring the universe from the Moon to Mars and beyond. Observations of the ultra-hot super-Earth TOI-561 b suggest that the exoplanet is surrounded by a thick blanket of gases above a global magma ocean. The results help explain the planet’s unusually low density and challenge the prevailing wisdom that relatively small planets so close to their stars are not able to sustain atmospheres.
Image A: Super-Earth Exoplanet TOI-561 b and Its Star (Artist’s Concept) This artist’s concept shows what the hot super-Earth exoplanet TOI-561 b and its star could look like based on observations from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope and other observatories. Webb data suggests that the planet is surrounded by a thick atmosphere above a magma ocean. Illustration: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI)With a radius roughly 1.4 times Earth’s, and an orbital period less than 11 hours, TOI-561 b falls into a rare class of objects known as ultra-short period exoplanets. Although its host star is only slightly smaller and cooler than the Sun, TOI-561 b orbits so close to the star — less than one million miles (one-fortieth the distance between Mercury and the Sun) — that it must be tidally locked, with the temperature of its permanent dayside far exceeding the melting temperature of typical rock.
“What really sets this planet apart is its anomalously low density,” said Johanna Teske, staff scientist at Carnegie Science Earth and Planets Laboratory and lead author on a paper published Thursday in The Astrophysical Journal Letters. “It’s not a super-puff, but it is less dense than you would expect if it had an Earth-like composition.”
Image B: Super-Earth Exoplanet TOI-561 b (Artist’s Concept) An artist’s concept shows what a thick atmosphere above a vast magma ocean on exoplanet TOI-561 b could look like. Measurements captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope suggest that in spite of the intense radiation it receives from its star, TOI-561 b is not a bare rock. Illustration: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI)One explanation the team considered for the planet’s low density was that it could have a relatively small iron core and a mantle made of rock that is not as dense as rock within Earth. Teske notes that this could make sense: “TOI-561 b is distinct among ultra-short period planets in that it orbits a very old (twice as old as the Sun), iron-poor star in a region of the Milky Way known as the thick disk. It must have formed in a very different chemical environment from the planets in our own solar system.” The planet’s composition could be representative of planets that formed when the universe was relatively young.
But an exotic composition can’t explain everything. The team also suspected that TOI-561 b might be surrounded by a thick atmosphere that makes it look larger than it actually is. Although small planets that have spent billions of years baking in blazing stellar radiation are not expected to have atmospheres, some show signs that they are not just bare rock or lava.
To test the hypothesis that TOI-561 b has an atmosphere, the team used Webb’s NIRSpec (Near-Infrared Spectrograph) to measure the planet’s dayside temperature based on its near-infrared brightness. The technique, which involves measuring the decrease in brightness of the star-planet system as the planet moves behind the star, is similar to that used to search for atmospheres in the TRAPPIST-1 system and on other rocky worlds.
If TOI-561 b is a bare rock with no atmosphere to carry heat around to the nightside, its dayside temperature should be approaching 4,900 degrees Fahrenheit (2,700 degrees Celsius). But the NIRSpec observations show that the planet’s dayside appears to be closer to 3,200 degrees Fahrenheit (1,800 degrees Celsius) — still extremely hot, but far cooler than expected.
Image C: Super-Earth Exoplanet TOI-561 b (NIRSpec Emission Spectrum) An emission spectrum captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope in May 2024 shows the brightness of different wavelengths of near-infrared light emitted by exoplanet TOI-561 b. Comparing the data to models suggests that the planet is surrounded by a volatile-rich atmosphere. Illustration: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI); Science: Johanna Teske (Carnegie Science Earth and Planets Laboratory), Anjali Piette (University of Birmingham), Tim Lichtenberg (Groningen), Nicole Wallack (Carnegie Science Earth and Planets Laboratory)To explain the results, the team considered a few different scenarios. The magma ocean could circulate some heat, but without an atmosphere, the nightside would probably be solid, limiting flow away from the dayside. A thin layer of rock vapor on the surface of the magma ocean is also possible, but on its own would likely have a much smaller cooling effect than observed.
“We really need a thick volatile-rich atmosphere to explain all the observations,” said Anjali Piette, coauthor from the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom.
“Strong winds would cool the dayside by transporting heat over to the nightside. Gases like water vapor would absorb some wavelengths of near-infrared light emitted by the surface before they make it all the way up through the atmosphere. (The planet would look colder because the telescope detects less light.) It’s also possible that there are bright silicate clouds that cool the atmosphere by reflecting starlight.”
While the Webb observations provide compelling evidence for such an atmosphere, the question remains: How can a small planet exposed to such intense radiation can hold on to any atmosphere at all, let alone one so substantial? Some gases must be escaping to space, but perhaps not as efficiently as expected.
“We think there is an equilibrium between the magma ocean and the atmosphere. At the same time that gases are coming out of the planet to feed the atmosphere, the magma ocean is sucking them back into the interior,” said co-author Tim Lichtenberg from the University of Groningen in the Netherlands. “This planet must be much, much more volatile-rich than Earth to explain the observations. It’s really like a wet lava ball.”
These are the first results from Webb’s General Observers Program 3860, which involved observing the system continuously for more than 37 hours while TOI-561 b completed nearly four full orbits of the star. The team is currently analyzing the full data set to map the temperature all the way around the planet and narrow down the composition of the atmosphere.
“What’s really exciting is that this new data set is opening up even more questions than it’s answering,” said Teske.
The James Webb Space Telescope is the world’s premier space science observatory. Webb is solving mysteries in our solar system, looking beyond to distant worlds around other stars, and probing the mysterious structures and origins of our universe and our place in it. Webb is an international program led by NASA with its partners, ESA (European Space Agency) and CSA (Canadian Space Agency).
To learn more about Webb, visit:
Related InformationRead more: Can Rocky Worlds Orbiting Red Dwarf Stars Maintain Atmospheres?
Explore more: ViewSpace Exoplanet Variety: Atmosphere
Explore more: How to Study Exoplanets: Webb and Challenges
Explore more: How Do We Learn About a Planet’s Atmosphere?
Read more: NASA’s Webb Hints at Possible Atmosphere Surrounding Rocky Exoplanet
Related For Kids Related Images & Videos Super-Earth Exoplanet TOI-561 b and Its Star (Artist’s Concept)This artist’s concept shows what the hot super-Earth exoplanet TOI-561 b and its star could look like based on observations from NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope and other observatories. Webb data suggests that the planet is surrounded by a thick atmosphere above a magma ocean.
Super-Earth Exoplanet TOI-561 b (Artist’s Concept)
An artist’s concept shows what a thick atmosphere above a vast magma ocean on exoplanet TOI-561 b could look like. Measurements captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope suggest that in spite of the intense radiation it receives from its star, TOI-561 b is not a bare rock.
Super-Earth Exoplanet TOI-561 b (NIRSpec Emission Spectrum)
An emission spectrum captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope in May 2024 shows the brightness of different wavelengths of near-infrared light emitted by exoplanet TOI-561 b. Comparing the data to models suggests that the planet is surrounded by a volatile-rich atmosphere.
Contact Media
Laura Betz
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center
Greenbelt, Maryland
laura.e.betz@nasa.gov
Margaret Carruthers
Space Telescope Science Institute
Baltimore, Maryland
Hannah Braun
Space Telescope Science Institute
Baltimore, Maryland
Related Terms Keep Exploring Related Topics James Webb Space Telescope
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An Unrelenting Tule Fog
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An atmospheric phenomenon occurring over much of California was unmistakable in satellite imagery in late autumn 2025. Fog stretching some 400 miles (640 kilometers) across the state’s Central Valley appeared day after day for more than two weeks in late November and early December. Known as tule (TOO-lee) fog, named after a sedge that grows in the area’s marshes, these low clouds tend to form in the valley in colder months when winds are light and soils are moist.
This animation shows a sprawling blanket of white fog filling most or all of the valley from Redding to Bakersfield between November 24 and December 9, 2025. While the fog mostly remained hemmed in by the Coastal Range and the Sierra Nevada, it sometimes spilled through the Carquinez Strait toward San Francisco Bay. These images were acquired with the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) instrument on NASA’s Terra satellite and the VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) on the NOAA-20 and Suomi NPP satellites.
The Central Valley is fertile ground for the formation of tule fog, a persistent radiation fog, in late autumn and winter. It occurs when air near the surface, laden with moisture from evaporation, cools and the water saturates the air. If winds are calm, water droplets accumulate into fog clouds near the ground.
Plenty of water was present in the valley’s soils following a very wet autumn. Across nearly all of central and southern California, precipitation totals from September through November 2025 were among the top 10 percent on record, California Institute for Water Resources climate scientist Daniel Swain noted on his Weather West blog. In late November, a very stable high-pressure system developed over the state, which acted like a lid that trapped moist air and confined the fog layer to the valley. With no major storms moving through to disrupt the stratification, the tule fog endured.
Temperatures have been notably cooler in the valley under the fog layer, in sharp contrast to the rest of the state, which was mostly warmer than normal. Despite the contrast, however, the ambient air mass has been warmer overall, Swain wrote. This may be due in part to warm ocean water offshore and a low Sierra Nevada snowpack sending less cold air downslope, he added.
The warmer overall temperatures could explain why fog has lingered at a slightly higher level—more like stratus clouds—at certain times and locations, said Swain. Colder temperatures would be necessary to produce the densest fog near the surface. The somewhat higher cloud in 2025 has differed from past events, when low visibility at ground level has caused major traffic incidents.
Central California has seen long stretches of cold, socked-in days in the past. In 1985, for example, Fresno experienced 16 consecutive days of dense fog, and Sacramento endured 17, according to news reports. Researchers have found, however, that tule fog has been forming less often in California in recent decades. Foggy days are beneficial for the valley’s fruit and nut trees, which need sufficient rest between growing seasons to be most productive. The fog typically comes with chilly weather that brings on a dormant period; it also shields trees from direct sunlight that would otherwise warm the plant buds.
NASA Earth Observatory images by Lauren Dauphin, using MODIS data from NASA EOSDIS LANCE and GIBS/Worldview, and VIIRS data from NASA EOSDIS LANCE, GIBS/Worldview, the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership, and the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS). Story by Lindsey Doermann.
References & Resources- Baldocchi, D., and Waller, E. (2014) Winter fog is decreasing in the fruit growing region of the Central Valley of California. Geophysical Research Letters, 41, 3251–3256.
- NASA Earth Observatory (2020, December 22) Cool Yule Tule. Accessed December 10, 2025.
- National Weather Service Radiation Fog. Accessed December 10, 2025.
- The Washington Post (2025, November 29) Why a 400-mile long fog bank lingered over California for a week. Accessed December 10, 2025.
- Weather West (2025, December 6) Under a resilient ridge, prolonged tule fog episode brings cold and damp weather to the Central Valley but anomalously warm/dry weather elsewhere. Accessed December 10, 2025.
- Weather West, via YouTube (2025, December 2) California weather update: Tule fog, a December dry spell, and an overview of our topsy-turvy autumn. Accessed December 10, 2025.
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An atmospheric phenomenon occurring over much of California was unmistakable in satellite imagery in late autumn 2025. Fog stretching some 400 miles (640 kilometers) across the state’s Central Valley appeared day after day for more than two weeks in late November and early December. Known as tule (TOO-lee) fog, named after a sedge that grows in the area’s marshes, these low clouds tend to form in the valley in colder months when winds are light and soils are moist.
This animation shows a sprawling blanket of white fog filling most or all of the valley from Redding to Bakersfield between November 24 and December 9, 2025. While the fog mostly remained hemmed in by the Coastal Range and the Sierra Nevada, it sometimes spilled through the Carquinez Strait toward San Francisco Bay. These images were acquired with the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) instrument on NASA’s Terra satellite and the VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) on the NOAA-20 and Suomi NPP satellites.
The Central Valley is fertile ground for the formation of tule fog, a persistent radiation fog, in late autumn and winter. It occurs when air near the surface, laden with moisture from evaporation, cools and the water saturates the air. If winds are calm, water droplets accumulate into fog clouds near the ground.
Plenty of water was present in the valley’s soils following a very wet autumn. Across nearly all of central and southern California, precipitation totals from September through November 2025 were among the top 10 percent on record, California Institute for Water Resources climate scientist Daniel Swain noted on his Weather West blog. In late November, a very stable high-pressure system developed over the state, which acted like a lid that trapped moist air and confined the fog layer to the valley. With no major storms moving through to disrupt the stratification, the tule fog endured.
Temperatures have been notably cooler in the valley under the fog layer, in sharp contrast to the rest of the state, which was mostly warmer than normal. Despite the contrast, however, the ambient air mass has been warmer overall, Swain wrote. This may be due in part to warm ocean water offshore and a low Sierra Nevada snowpack sending less cold air downslope, he added.
The warmer overall temperatures could explain why fog has lingered at a slightly higher level—more like stratus clouds—at certain times and locations, said Swain. Colder temperatures would be necessary to produce the densest fog near the surface. The somewhat higher cloud in 2025 has differed from past events, when low visibility at ground level has caused major traffic incidents.
Central California has seen long stretches of cold, socked-in days in the past. In 1985, for example, Fresno experienced 16 consecutive days of dense fog, and Sacramento endured 17, according to news reports. Researchers have found, however, that tule fog has been forming less often in California in recent decades. Foggy days are beneficial for the valley’s fruit and nut trees, which need sufficient rest between growing seasons to be most productive. The fog typically comes with chilly weather that brings on a dormant period; it also shields trees from direct sunlight that would otherwise warm the plant buds.
NASA Earth Observatory images by Lauren Dauphin, using MODIS data from NASA EOSDIS LANCE and GIBS/Worldview, and VIIRS data from NASA EOSDIS LANCE, GIBS/Worldview, the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership, and the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS). Story by Lindsey Doermann.
References & Resources- Baldocchi, D., and Waller, E. (2014) Winter fog is decreasing in the fruit growing region of the Central Valley of California. Geophysical Research Letters, 41, 3251–3256.
- NASA Earth Observatory (2020, December 22) Cool Yule Tule. Accessed December 10, 2025.
- National Weather Service Radiation Fog. Accessed December 10, 2025.
- The Washington Post (2025, November 29) Why a 400-mile long fog bank lingered over California for a week. Accessed December 10, 2025.
- Weather West (2025, December 6) Under a resilient ridge, prolonged tule fog episode brings cold and damp weather to the Central Valley but anomalously warm/dry weather elsewhere. Accessed December 10, 2025.
- Weather West, via YouTube (2025, December 2) California weather update: Tule fog, a December dry spell, and an overview of our topsy-turvy autumn. Accessed December 10, 2025.
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NASA JPL Unveils Rover Operations Center for Moon, Mars Missions
5 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater) This video highlights the Rover Operations Center at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. A center of excellence for current and future rover, aerial, and other surface missions, the ROC will support partnerships and technology transfer to catalyze the next generation of Moon and Mars surface missions. Credit: NASA/JPL-CaltechThe center leverages AI along with JPL’s unique infrastructure, unrivaled tools, and years of operations expertise to support industry partners developing future planetary surface missions.
NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California on Wednesday inaugurated its Rover Operations Center (ROC), a center of excellence for current and future surface missions to the Moon and Mars. During the launch event, leaders from the commercial space and AI industries toured the facilities, participated in working sessions with JPL mission teams, and learned more about the first-ever use of generative AI by NASA’s Perseverance Mars rover team to create future routes for the robotic explorer.
The center was established to integrate and innovate across JPL’s planetary surface missions while simultaneously forging strategic partnerships with industry and academia to advance U.S. interests in the burgeoning space economy. The center builds on JPL’s 30-plus years of experience developing and operating Mars surface missions, including humanity’s only helicopter to fly at Mars as well as the only two active planetary surface missions.
“The Rover Operations Center is a force multiplier,” said JPL Director Dave Gallagher. “It integrates decades of specialized knowledge with powerful new tools, and exports that knowledge through partnerships to catalyze the next generation of Moon and Mars surface missions. As NASA’s federally funded research and development center, we are chartered to do exactly this type of work — to increase the cadence, the efficiency, and the impact for our transformative NASA missions and to support the commercial space market as they take their own giant leaps.”
Rover prototype ERNEST (Exploration Rover for Navigating Extreme Sloped Terrain) demonstrates some of its advanced mobility and autonomy capabilities in JPL’s Mars Yard. NASA/JPL-Caltech Genesis of ROCThrough decades of successful Mars rover missions, JPL has continuously improved the unique autonomy, robotic capabilities, and best practices that have been demanded by increasingly complex robotic explorers. The ROC offers an accessible centralized structure to facilitate future exploration efforts.
“Our rovers are lasting longer and are more sophisticated than ever before. The scientific stakes are high, as we have just witnessed with the discovery of a potential biosignature in Jezero Crater by the Perseverance mission. We are starting down a decade of unprecedented civil and commercial exploration at the Moon, which will require robotic systems to assist astronauts and support lunar infrastructure,” said Matt Wallace, who heads JPL’s Exploration Systems Office. “Mobile vehicles like rovers, helicopters, and drones are the most dynamic and challenging assets we operate. It’s time to take our game up a notch and bring everybody we can with us.”
Michael Thelen of JPL’s Exploration Systems Office discusses the newly inaugurated Rover Operations Center in JPL’s historic Space Flight Operations Facility on Dec. 10.NASA/JPL-Caltech Future forwardA key focus of the ROC is on the more rapid infusion of higher-level autonomy into surface missions through partnerships with the AI and commercial space industries. The objective is to catalyze change to deliver next-generation science and exploration capabilities for the nation and NASA.
As NASA’s only federally funded research and development center, JPL has been evolving vehicle autonomy since the 1990s, when JPL began developing Sojourner, the first rover on another planet. Improvements to vehicle independence over the years have included the evolution of autonomy in sampling activities, driving, and science-target selection. Most recently, those improvements have extended to the development of Perseverance’s ability to autonomously schedule and execute many commanded energy-intensive activities, like keeping warm at night, as it sees fit. This capability allows the rover to conserve power, which it can reallocate in real time to perform more science or longer drives.
With the explosion of AI capabilities, the ROC rover team is leaving no Mars stone unturned in the hunt for future efficiencies.
“We had a small team complete a ‘three-week challenge,’ applying generative AI to a few of our operational use cases. During this challenge, it became clear there are many opportunities for AI infusion that can supercharge our capabilities,” said Jennifer Trosper, ROC program manager at JPL. “With these new partnerships, together we will infuse AI into operations to path-find the next generation of capabilities for science and exploration.”
Håvard Grip, chief pilot of NASA’s Mars Ingenuity Helicopter — the only aircraft to fly on another planet — offers insights into aerial exploration of the Red Planet at the lab’s 25-Foot Space Simulator, which subjects spacecraft to the harsh conditions of space.During the ROC’s inauguration, attendees toured JPL operations facilities, including where the rover drivers plan their next routes. They also visited JPL’s historic Mars Yard, which reproduces Martian terrain to test rover capabilities, and the massive 25-Foot Space Simulator that has tested spacecraft from Voyagers 1 and 2 to Perseverance to America’s next generation of lunar landers. A panel discussion explored the historical value of rovers and aerial systems like the Ingenuity Mars Helicopter in planetary surface exploration. Also discussed was the promise of a new public-private partnership opportunity across a virtual network of operational missions.
Attendees were briefed on tiered engagement options for partners, from mission architecture support to autonomy integration, testing, and operations. These opportunities extend to science and human precursor robotic missions, as well as to human-robotic interaction and spacewalks for astronauts on the Moon and Mars.
A highlight for event participants came when the Perseverance team showcased how the ROC’s generative AI can assist rover planners in creating future routes for the rover. The AI analyzed high-resolution orbital images of Jezero Crater and other relevant data and then generated waypoints that kept Perseverance away from hazardous terrain.
Managed for NASA by Caltech, JPL is the home of the Rover Operations Center (ROC).
To learn more about the ROC, visit:
News Media Contact
DC Agle
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
818-393-9011
agle@jpl.nasa.gov
2025-137
Share Details Last Updated Dec 10, 2025 Related Terms Explore More 4 min read NASA Selects 2 Instruments for Artemis IV Lunar Surface ScienceNASA has selected two science instruments designed for astronauts to deploy on the surface of…
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NASA JPL Unveils Rover Operations Center for Moon, Mars Missions
5 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater) This video highlights the Rover Operations Center at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. A center of excellence for current and future rover, aerial, and other surface missions, the ROC will support partnerships and technology transfer to catalyze the next generation of Moon and Mars surface missions. Credit: NASA/JPL-CaltechThe center leverages AI along with JPL’s unique infrastructure, unrivaled tools, and years of operations expertise to support industry partners developing future planetary surface missions.
NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California on Wednesday inaugurated its Rover Operations Center (ROC), a center of excellence for current and future surface missions to the Moon and Mars. During the launch event, leaders from the commercial space and AI industries toured the facilities, participated in working sessions with JPL mission teams, and learned more about the first-ever use of generative AI by NASA’s Perseverance Mars rover team to create future routes for the robotic explorer.
The center was established to integrate and innovate across JPL’s planetary surface missions while simultaneously forging strategic partnerships with industry and academia to advance U.S. interests in the burgeoning space economy. The center builds on JPL’s 30-plus years of experience developing and operating Mars surface missions, including humanity’s only helicopter to fly at Mars as well as the only two active planetary surface missions.
“The Rover Operations Center is a force multiplier,” said JPL Director Dave Gallagher. “It integrates decades of specialized knowledge with powerful new tools, and exports that knowledge through partnerships to catalyze the next generation of Moon and Mars surface missions. As NASA’s federally funded research and development center, we are chartered to do exactly this type of work — to increase the cadence, the efficiency, and the impact for our transformative NASA missions and to support the commercial space market as they take their own giant leaps.”
Rover prototype ERNEST (Exploration Rover for Navigating Extreme Sloped Terrain) demonstrates some of its advanced mobility and autonomy capabilities in JPL’s Mars Yard. NASA/JPL-Caltech Genesis of ROCThrough decades of successful Mars rover missions, JPL has continuously improved the unique autonomy, robotic capabilities, and best practices that have been demanded by increasingly complex robotic explorers. The ROC offers an accessible centralized structure to facilitate future exploration efforts.
“Our rovers are lasting longer and are more sophisticated than ever before. The scientific stakes are high, as we have just witnessed with the discovery of a potential biosignature in Jezero Crater by the Perseverance mission. We are starting down a decade of unprecedented civil and commercial exploration at the Moon, which will require robotic systems to assist astronauts and support lunar infrastructure,” said Matt Wallace, who heads JPL’s Exploration Systems Office. “Mobile vehicles like rovers, helicopters, and drones are the most dynamic and challenging assets we operate. It’s time to take our game up a notch and bring everybody we can with us.”
Michael Thelen of JPL’s Exploration Systems Office discusses the newly inaugurated Rover Operations Center in JPL’s historic Space Flight Operations Facility on Dec. 10.NASA/JPL-Caltech Future forwardA key focus of the ROC is on the more rapid infusion of higher-level autonomy into surface missions through partnerships with the AI and commercial space industries. The objective is to catalyze change to deliver next-generation science and exploration capabilities for the nation and NASA.
As NASA’s only federally funded research and development center, JPL has been evolving vehicle autonomy since the 1990s, when JPL began developing Sojourner, the first rover on another planet. Improvements to vehicle independence over the years have included the evolution of autonomy in sampling activities, driving, and science-target selection. Most recently, those improvements have extended to the development of Perseverance’s ability to autonomously schedule and execute many commanded energy-intensive activities, like keeping warm at night, as it sees fit. This capability allows the rover to conserve power, which it can reallocate in real time to perform more science or longer drives.
With the explosion of AI capabilities, the ROC rover team is leaving no Mars stone unturned in the hunt for future efficiencies.
“We had a small team complete a ‘three-week challenge,’ applying generative AI to a few of our operational use cases. During this challenge, it became clear there are many opportunities for AI infusion that can supercharge our capabilities,” said Jennifer Trosper, ROC program manager at JPL. “With these new partnerships, together we will infuse AI into operations to path-find the next generation of capabilities for science and exploration.”
Håvard Grip, chief pilot of NASA’s Mars Ingenuity Helicopter — the only aircraft to fly on another planet — offers insights into aerial exploration of the Red Planet at the lab’s 25-Foot Space Simulator, which subjects spacecraft to the harsh conditions of space.During the ROC’s inauguration, attendees toured JPL operations facilities, including where the rover drivers plan their next routes. They also visited JPL’s historic Mars Yard, which reproduces Martian terrain to test rover capabilities, and the massive 25-Foot Space Simulator that has tested spacecraft from Voyagers 1 and 2 to Perseverance to America’s next generation of lunar landers. A panel discussion explored the historical value of rovers and aerial systems like the Ingenuity Mars Helicopter in planetary surface exploration. Also discussed was the promise of a new public-private partnership opportunity across a virtual network of operational missions.
Attendees were briefed on tiered engagement options for partners, from mission architecture support to autonomy integration, testing, and operations. These opportunities extend to science and human precursor robotic missions, as well as to human-robotic interaction and spacewalks for astronauts on the Moon and Mars.
A highlight for event participants came when the Perseverance team showcased how the ROC’s generative AI can assist rover planners in creating future routes for the rover. The AI analyzed high-resolution orbital images of Jezero Crater and other relevant data and then generated waypoints that kept Perseverance away from hazardous terrain.
Managed for NASA by Caltech, JPL is the home of the Rover Operations Center (ROC).
To learn more about the ROC, visit:
News Media Contact
DC Agle
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
818-393-9011
agle@jpl.nasa.gov
2025-137
Share Details Last Updated Dec 10, 2025 Related Terms Explore More 4 min read NASA Selects 2 Instruments for Artemis IV Lunar Surface ScienceNASA has selected two science instruments designed for astronauts to deploy on the surface of…
Article 7 days ago 6 min read NASA Rover Detects Electric Sparks in Mars Dust Devils, Storms Article 1 week ago 6 min read NASA Tests Drones in Death Valley, Preps for Martian Sands and Skies Article 1 week ago Keep Exploring Discover Related Topics Mars ExplorationMars is the only planet we know of inhabited entirely by robots. Learn more about the Mars Missions.
How We Land on MarsHow does NASA get its Mars rovers and landers safely to the surface of the Red Planet? Parachutes, airbags, a…
Mars 2020: Perseverance RoverNASA’s Mars Perseverance rover seeks signs of ancient life and collects samples of rock and regolith for possible Earth return.
Mars Exploration Rovers: Spirit and OpportunityNASA’s Spirit and Opportunity rovers were identical twin robots who helped rewrite our understanding of the early history of Mars.
25 Years of Space Station Technology Driving Exploration
NASA and its partners have supported humans continuously living and working in space since November 2000. After 25 years of habitation, the International Space Station continues to be a proving ground for technology that powers NASA’s Artemis campaign, future lunar missions, and human exploration of Mars.
Take a look at key technology advancements made possible by research aboard the orbiting laboratory.
Robots at work in orbit NASA astronaut Suni Williams checks out the Astrobee robotic free-flyer inside the International Space Station’s Kibo laboratory module during a demonstration of satellite capture techniques. This technology could help extend the life of satellites and reduce space debris.NASARobots have been critical to the space station’s success. From the Canadian-built Canadarm2, which assembled large portions of the orbiting laboratory and continues to support ongoing operations, especially during spacewalks, robotic technology on station has evolved to include free-flying assistants and humanoid robots that have extended crew capabilities and opened new paths for exploration.
The station’s first robotic helpers arrived in 2003. The SPHERES robots – short for Synchronized Position Hold, Engage, Reorient, Experimental Satellite – served on station for over a decade, supporting environmental monitoring, data collection and transfer, and materials testing in microgravity.
NASA’s subsequent free-flying robotic system, Astrobee, built on the lessons learned from SPHERES. Known affectionately as Honey, Queen, and Bumble, the three Astrobees work autonomously or via remote control by astronauts, flight controllers, or researchers on the ground. They are designed to complete tasks such as inventory, documenting experiments conducted by astronauts, or moving cargo throughout the station, and they can be outfitted and programmed to carry out experiments.
NASA and partners have also tested dexterous humanoid robots aboard the space station. Robonaut 1 and its more advanced successor, Robonaut 2, were designed to use the same tools as humans, so they could work safely with crew with the potential to take over routine tasks and high-risk activities.
Advanced robotic technologies will play a significant role in NASA’s mission to return to the Moon and continue on to Mars and beyond. Robots like Astrobee and Robonaut 2 have the capacity to become caretakers for future spacecraft, complete precursor missions to new destinations, and support crew safety by tackling hazardous tasks.
Closing the loop: recycling air and water in space ESA (European Space Agency) astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti works on a Regenerative Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) recycle tank remove-and-replace task aboard the orbiting laboratory. ESALiving and working in space for more than two decades requires technology that makes the most of limited resources. The space station’s life support systems recycle air and water to keep astronauts healthy and reduce the need for resupply from Earth.
The station’s Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) removes carbon dioxide from the air, supplies oxygen for breathing, and recycles wastewater—turning yesterday’s coffee into tomorrow’s coffee. It is built around three key components: the Water Recovery System, Air Revitalization System, and Oxygen Generation System. The water processor reclaims wastewater from crew members’ urine, cabin humidity, and the hydration systems inside spacesuits for spacewalks, converting it into clean, drinkable water.
NASA astronaut Kjell Lindgren celebrates International Coffee Day aboard the orbital outpost with a hand-brewed cup of coffee in space, brewed using the Capillary Beverage Cup.NASAThe air revitalization system filters carbon dioxide and trace contaminants from the cabin atmosphere, ensuring the air stays safe to breathe. The oxygen generation system uses electrolysis to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, providing a steady supply of breathable air. Today, these systems can recover around 98% of the water brought to the station, a vital step toward achieving long-duration missions where resupply will not be possible.
The lessons learned aboard the space station will help keep Artemis crews healthy on the Moon and shape the closed-loop systems needed for future expeditions to Mars.
Advancing 3D printing technology for deep space exploration The first metal part 3D printed in space.ESAAdditive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, is regularly used on Earth to quickly produce a variety of devices. Adapting this process for space could let crew members create tools and parts for maintenance and repair as needed and save valuable cargo space.
Research aboard the orbiting laboratory is helping to develop this capability.
The space station’s first 3D printer was installed in November 2014. That device produced more than a dozen plastic tools and parts, demonstrating that the process could work in low Earth orbit. Subsequent devices tested different printer designs and functionality, including the production of parts from recycled materials and simulated lunar regolith. In August 2024, a device supplied by ESA produced the first metal 3D-printed product.
The space station also has hosted studies of a form of 3D printing called biological printing or bioprinting. This process uses living cells, proteins, and nutrients as raw materials to potentially produce human tissues for treating injury and disease. So far, a knee meniscus and live human heart tissue have been printed onboard.
The ability to manufacture things in space is especially important in planning for future missions to the Moon and Mars because additional supplies cannot quickly be sent from Earth and cargo capacity is limited.
We have the solar power NASA astronaut and Expedition 72 flight engineer Anne McClain is pictured near one of the space station’s main solar arrays during a spacewalk to upgrade the orbital outpost’s power generation system and relocate a communications antenna.NASA/Nichole AyersAs the space station orbits Earth, its four pairs of solar arrays soak up the sun’s energy to provide electrical power for the numerous research and science investigations conducted every day, as well as the continued operations of the orbiting laboratory.
In addition to harnessing the Sun’s energy for its operations, the space station has provided a platform for innovative solar power research. At least two dozen investigations have tested advanced solar cell technology – evaluating the cells’ on-orbit performance and monitoring degradation caused by exposure to the extreme environment of space. These investigations have demonstrated technologies that could enable lighter, less expensive, and more efficient solar power that could improve the design of future spacecraft and support sustainable energy generation on Earth.
One investigation – the Roll-Out Solar Array – has already led to improvements aboard the space station. The successful test of a new type of solar panel that rolls open like a party favor and is more compact than current rigid panel designs informed development of the ISS Roll-Out Solar Arrays (iROSAs). The six iROSAs were installed during a series of spacewalks between 2021 and 2023 and provided a 20% to 30% increase in space station power.
Connecting students to station science The Kibo-RPC students watch in real time as the free-flying robot Astrobee performs maneuvers aboard the space station, executing tasks based on their input to test its capabilities. NASA/Helen Arase VargasFor 25 years, the orbital outpost has served as a global learning platform, advancing STEM education and connecting people on Earth to life in space. Every experiment, in-flight downlink, and student-designed payload helps students see science in action and share humanity’s pursuit of discovery.
The first and longest-running education program on the space station is ISS Ham Radio, known as Amateur Radio on the International Space Station (ARISS), where students can ask questions directly to crew members aboard the space station. Since 2000, ARISS has connected more than 100 astronauts with over 1 million students across 49 U.S. states, 63 countries, and every continent.
Through Learn with NASA, students and teachers can explore hands-on activities and astronaut-led experiments that demonstrate how physics, biology, and chemistry unfold in microgravity.
Students worldwide also take part in research inspired by the space station. Programs like Genes in Space and Cubes in Space let learners design experiments for orbit, while coding and robotics competitions such as the Kibo Robot Programming Challenge allows students to program Astrobee free-flying robots aboard the orbiting laboratory.
As NASA prepares for Artemis missions to the Moon, the space station continues to spark curiosity and inspire the next generation of explorers.
Explore More 3 min read City Lights Glow Along Moonlit WatersAn astronaut photographed moonglint shimmering across the sea surface and the bright clusters of Florida’s…
Article 2 days ago 4 min read Artemis II Vehicle Manager Branelle Rodriguez Gets Orion Ready for “Go” Article 4 days ago 5 min read Student Art Murals at Johnson Celebrate 25 Years of Humanity in Space Article 1 week ago25 Years of Space Station Technology Driving Exploration
NASA and its partners have supported humans continuously living and working in space since November 2000. After 25 years of habitation, the International Space Station continues to be a proving ground for technology that powers NASA’s Artemis campaign, future lunar missions, and human exploration of Mars.
Take a look at key technology advancements made possible by research aboard the orbiting laboratory.
Robots at work in orbit NASA astronaut Suni Williams checks out the Astrobee robotic free-flyer inside the International Space Station’s Kibo laboratory module during a demonstration of satellite capture techniques. This technology could help extend the life of satellites and reduce space debris.NASARobots have been critical to the space station’s success. From the Canadian-built Canadarm2, which assembled large portions of the orbiting laboratory and continues to support ongoing operations, especially during spacewalks, robotic technology on station has evolved to include free-flying assistants and humanoid robots that have extended crew capabilities and opened new paths for exploration.
The station’s first robotic helpers arrived in 2003. The SPHERES robots – short for Synchronized Position Hold, Engage, Reorient, Experimental Satellite – served on station for over a decade, supporting environmental monitoring, data collection and transfer, and materials testing in microgravity.
NASA’s subsequent free-flying robotic system, Astrobee, built on the lessons learned from SPHERES. Known affectionately as Honey, Queen, and Bumble, the three Astrobees work autonomously or via remote control by astronauts, flight controllers, or researchers on the ground. They are designed to complete tasks such as inventory, documenting experiments conducted by astronauts, or moving cargo throughout the station, and they can be outfitted and programmed to carry out experiments.
NASA and partners have also tested dexterous humanoid robots aboard the space station. Robonaut 1 and its more advanced successor, Robonaut 2, were designed to use the same tools as humans, so they could work safely with crew with the potential to take over routine tasks and high-risk activities.
Advanced robotic technologies will play a significant role in NASA’s mission to return to the Moon and continue on to Mars and beyond. Robots like Astrobee and Robonaut 2 have the capacity to become caretakers for future spacecraft, complete precursor missions to new destinations, and support crew safety by tackling hazardous tasks.
Closing the loop: recycling air and water in space ESA (European Space Agency) astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti works on a Regenerative Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) recycle tank remove-and-replace task aboard the orbiting laboratory. ESALiving and working in space for more than two decades requires technology that makes the most of limited resources. The space station’s life support systems recycle air and water to keep astronauts healthy and reduce the need for resupply from Earth.
The station’s Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) removes carbon dioxide from the air, supplies oxygen for breathing, and recycles wastewater—turning yesterday’s coffee into tomorrow’s coffee. It is built around three key components: the Water Recovery System, Air Revitalization System, and Oxygen Generation System. The water processor reclaims wastewater from crew members’ urine, cabin humidity, and the hydration systems inside spacesuits for spacewalks, converting it into clean, drinkable water.
NASA astronaut Kjell Lindgren celebrates International Coffee Day aboard the orbital outpost with a hand-brewed cup of coffee in space, brewed using the Capillary Beverage Cup.NASAThe air revitalization system filters carbon dioxide and trace contaminants from the cabin atmosphere, ensuring the air stays safe to breathe. The oxygen generation system uses electrolysis to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, providing a steady supply of breathable air. Today, these systems can recover around 98% of the water brought to the station, a vital step toward achieving long-duration missions where resupply will not be possible.
The lessons learned aboard the space station will help keep Artemis crews healthy on the Moon and shape the closed-loop systems needed for future expeditions to Mars.
Advancing 3D printing technology for deep space exploration The first metal part 3D printed in space.ESAAdditive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, is regularly used on Earth to quickly produce a variety of devices. Adapting this process for space could let crew members create tools and parts for maintenance and repair as needed and save valuable cargo space.
Research aboard the orbiting laboratory is helping to develop this capability.
The space station’s first 3D printer was installed in November 2014. That device produced more than a dozen plastic tools and parts, demonstrating that the process could work in low Earth orbit. Subsequent devices tested different printer designs and functionality, including the production of parts from recycled materials and simulated lunar regolith. In August 2024, a device supplied by ESA produced the first metal 3D-printed product.
The space station also has hosted studies of a form of 3D printing called biological printing or bioprinting. This process uses living cells, proteins, and nutrients as raw materials to potentially produce human tissues for treating injury and disease. So far, a knee meniscus and live human heart tissue have been printed onboard.
The ability to manufacture things in space is especially important in planning for future missions to the Moon and Mars because additional supplies cannot quickly be sent from Earth and cargo capacity is limited.
We have the solar power NASA astronaut and Expedition 72 flight engineer Anne McClain is pictured near one of the space station’s main solar arrays during a spacewalk to upgrade the orbital outpost’s power generation system and relocate a communications antenna.NASA/Nichole AyersAs the space station orbits Earth, its four pairs of solar arrays soak up the sun’s energy to provide electrical power for the numerous research and science investigations conducted every day, as well as the continued operations of the orbiting laboratory.
In addition to harnessing the Sun’s energy for its operations, the space station has provided a platform for innovative solar power research. At least two dozen investigations have tested advanced solar cell technology – evaluating the cells’ on-orbit performance and monitoring degradation caused by exposure to the extreme environment of space. These investigations have demonstrated technologies that could enable lighter, less expensive, and more efficient solar power that could improve the design of future spacecraft and support sustainable energy generation on Earth.
One investigation – the Roll-Out Solar Array – has already led to improvements aboard the space station. The successful test of a new type of solar panel that rolls open like a party favor and is more compact than current rigid panel designs informed development of the ISS Roll-Out Solar Arrays (iROSAs). The six iROSAs were installed during a series of spacewalks between 2021 and 2023 and provided a 20% to 30% increase in space station power.
Connecting students to station science The Kibo-RPC students watch in real time as the free-flying robot Astrobee performs maneuvers aboard the space station, executing tasks based on their input to test its capabilities. NASA/Helen Arase VargasFor 25 years, the orbital outpost has served as a global learning platform, advancing STEM education and connecting people on Earth to life in space. Every experiment, in-flight downlink, and student-designed payload helps students see science in action and share humanity’s pursuit of discovery.
The first and longest-running education program on the space station is ISS Ham Radio, known as Amateur Radio on the International Space Station (ARISS), where students can ask questions directly to crew members aboard the space station. Since 2000, ARISS has connected more than 100 astronauts with over 1 million students across 49 U.S. states, 63 countries, and every continent.
Through Learn with NASA, students and teachers can explore hands-on activities and astronaut-led experiments that demonstrate how physics, biology, and chemistry unfold in microgravity.
Students worldwide also take part in research inspired by the space station. Programs like Genes in Space and Cubes in Space let learners design experiments for orbit, while coding and robotics competitions such as the Kibo Robot Programming Challenge allows students to program Astrobee free-flying robots aboard the orbiting laboratory.
As NASA prepares for Artemis missions to the Moon, the space station continues to spark curiosity and inspire the next generation of explorers.
Explore More 3 min read City Lights Glow Along Moonlit WatersAn astronaut photographed moonglint shimmering across the sea surface and the bright clusters of Florida’s…
Article 2 days ago 4 min read Artemis II Vehicle Manager Branelle Rodriguez Gets Orion Ready for “Go” Article 3 days ago 5 min read Student Art Murals at Johnson Celebrate 25 Years of Humanity in Space Article 1 week agoGLOBE Expands with Landsat Land Cover Comparisons
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- About
The Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE) Program has launched a new feature that connects citizen scientists directly to Landsat observations. Through GLOBE, volunteers around the world collect environmental data in support of Earth system science, including land observations. GLOBE land cover observations may include photos of the landscape and a classification of the land cover, providing a valuable dataset of ground-truth observations.
GLOBE Land Cover is an app-based tool where users can document land cover through photographs. Users can classify their observations, compare them to a satellite image, and note any differences. GLOBE ObserverAs of September, when volunteers submit land cover observations to GLOBE, they will receive an email comparing their findings to Landsat and Sentinel-2 satellite observations of the same location in the same timeframe. This direct comparison helps bridge the gap between space-based remote sensing and ground-based observations, building on the successful legacy of GLOBE cloud observations that have been matched with satellite data for years.
Why Is GLOBE Including Land Cover?Land cover classification plays a crucial role in understanding and managing our environment. This information is essential for risk analysis related to natural disasters such as floods, wildfires, and landslides. It also enables scientists to track the impacts of land use changes over time and create detailed maps of wildlife habitats. Landsat is a key dataset in many national and global land cover classification products such as the National Land Cover Database (NLCD).
GLOBE land cover allows anyone, from a highschooler to a university professor, to contribute to our understanding of Earth’s changing surface.
For more information about Landsat’s new role in GLOBE, read GLOBE’s feature or explore GLOBE Land Cover.
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Retirement
The NSSC provides general administrative, advisory, and transactional support for federal benefits programs to all NASA employees, calculates retirement estimates, and processes retirement packages.
In consideration of retiring employees on administrative leave, resources typically available only to NASA employees behind the NASA firewall are temporarily available below. Most of your questions can be answered with one of these guides or the information below.
- Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) – What you need to know about retirement
- Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS) – What you need to know about retirement
This information may help you resolve questions you would otherwise contact the NASA Shared Services Center (NSSC) about.
All other NASA employees can visit the NASA employee intranet for additional information.
Inquiry Response TimesNASA is experiencing a significant influx of inquiries due to the high number of upcoming retirements. Response times will be slower than normal. Please do not send repeated follow-ups, as that creates bottlenecks and further delays responses. All inquiries will be answered in the order received. Thank you for your patience.
Retirement Annuity Start Dates and Processing TimelinesFERS retirees with a retirement date on or before Dec. 31, 2025:
- Your annuity begins accruing Jan. 1, 2026.
- Your first payment is expected mid-February 2026.
- Because payments begin in February, your application is still considered timely even if it remains with the NSSC through late January.
- As long as your case reaches Payroll Review by February, there will be no delay in your annuity.
CSRS retirees with a retirement date on or before Jan. 3, 2026:
- Your annuity will accrue starting in January 2026, with the first payment mid-February 2026.
- Processing is still considered on time if NSSC completes its portion by late January, and your case reaches Payroll Review by February.
FERS employees retiring Jan. 1, 2026 or later and CSRS employees retiring Jan. 4, 2026, or later:
- Your annuity begins accruing Feb. 1, 2026.
- Your first payment is expected mid-March 2026.
- Applications can typically remain in HR review through February.
- As long as your package reaches Payroll Review by the end of February, your retirement payment will not be delayed.
VSIP payments will be issued with your final NASA paycheck. We do not expect any delays to VSIP payments. Even if your retirement application is not finalized by your retirement date it will not delay your VSIP.
Lump sum annual leave payments for employees retiring Dec. 28, 2025, through Jan. 10, 2026, are expected to be paid around Feb. 13, 2026. Even if your retirement application is not finalized by your retirement date it will not delay your lump sum leave payment.
All NASA issued payments, to include your last paycheck, VSIP, and lump sum leave, will be deposited into the same bank account used for your NASA payroll. Updates made in the Online Retirement Application (ORA) do not affect NASA payroll. ORA updates only apply to your future retirement annuity.
Understanding Online Retirement Application StatusesIn Process/Not Started:
- The application is with the employee for action. The NSSC cannot move it forward until the employee completes required steps. This is the only stage at which an employee can adjust or make changes to their application in ORA.
In HR Review:
- Your application is actively being worked by the NSSC Retirement Services team. Thousands of retirements are in the queue, so please be patient. Once your application is in HR Review (or beyond) you cannot make any changes. If you have a change that needs to be made, submit a Web Inquiry to the NSSC.
In Applicant Review:
- The application is back with the employee for final certification. Once completed, the status will update to In HR Finalized.
In HR Finalized:
- The NSSC has completed its portion and will release the package to payroll.
In Payroll Review:
- Your application is no longer with NASA. It is with the Department of the Interior, Interior Business Center (IBC), NASA’s payroll provider.
- Applications typically remain in Payroll Review for about 30 days after your retirement date while payroll records close. IBC will then certify the package and submit it to OPM.
- Do not change your email address once you begin your retirement application. ORA does not allow email updates mid-process.
- Changing your email requires deleting your application and starting over, which can significantly delay your place in the queue.
- You may update your preferred email later in OPM Services Online once your case transfers to OPM.
- The FERS group retirement counseling sessions have been extended to accommodate additional participants and are full. If you are not able to attend one of these sessions or may otherwise find the information helpful, you can watch a previously recorded session. To jump to a specific topic, see the recording time stamps.
- A final CSRS counseling session will be held Dec. 23. Eligible employees have already received a Teams meeting invitation via their personal email address. If you missed this invitation, you may submit a Web Inquiry to the NSSC to have it resent.
- A Retiree’s Guide for Preparing to Retire
- Benefits and Retirement Information
- Retirement Quick Guide
- OPM Retirement & Insurance Publications
- OPM Retirement FAQs
- Continuation of Life Insurance Election, SF 2818
- CSRS Spousal Consent to Survivor Election
- FERS Spousal Consent to Survivor Election
- Withholding Certificate for Periodic Pension or Annuity Payments, W-4P
- Medicare Request for Employment Information (only applicable for employees who are over age 65 and enrolling in Medicare during a Special Enrollment Period)
- Guidance on Reviewing and Updating Beneficiary Forms
- Voluntary Contribution Election (only for CSRS employees who have participated in the Voluntary Contribution Program)
Courts can issue orders that award benefits to legally separated spouses, former spouses, and children of current employees, former employees, and retirees under the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) and the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS). NASA cannot advise an employee, an employee’s spouse, or an attorney on how to draft a court order to award CSRS or FERS benefits. This is the task of the attorneys involved.
The NSSC cannot provide estimates that would require speculation about future promotions, program changes, or any other non-factual information and does not prepare estimates for employees who are not close to retirement. Official computations are made by OPM only at the time benefits become payable.
If you are involved in a divorce, legal separation, or annulment, you should provide the NSSC with a copy of your court order to expedite the processing of your retirement in the future.
Action required: Mail a court-certified copy of the court order to the address below and upload a copy in your ORA account:
- Attention: Retirement Services
NSSC
Bldg 1111, Jerry Hlass Rd
Stennis Space Center, MS 35929
Retirement
The NSSC provides general administrative, advisory, and transactional support for federal benefits programs to all NASA employees, calculates retirement estimates, and processes retirement packages.
In consideration of retiring employees on administrative leave, resources typically available only to NASA employees behind the NASA firewall are temporarily available below. Most of your questions can be answered with one of these guides or the information below.
- Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) – What you need to know about retirement
- Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS) – What you need to know about retirement
This information may help you resolve questions you would otherwise contact the NASA Shared Services Center (NSSC) about.
All other NASA employees can visit the NASA employee intranet for additional information.
Inquiry Response TimesNASA is experiencing a significant influx of inquiries due to the high number of upcoming retirements. Response times will be slower than normal. Please do not send repeated follow-ups, as that creates bottlenecks and further delays responses. All inquiries will be answered in the order received. Thank you for your patience.
Retirement Annuity Start Dates and Processing TimelinesFERS retirees with a retirement date on or before Dec. 31, 2025:
- Your annuity begins accruing Jan. 1, 2026.
- Your first payment is expected mid-February 2026.
- Because payments begin in February, your application is still considered timely even if it remains with the NSSC through late January.
- As long as your case reaches Payroll Review by February, there will be no delay in your annuity.
CSRS retirees with a retirement date on or before Jan. 3, 2026:
- Your annuity will accrue starting in January 2026, with the first payment mid-February 2026.
- Processing is still considered on time if NSSC completes its portion by late January, and your case reaches Payroll Review by February.
FERS employees retiring Jan. 1, 2026 or later and CSRS employees retiring Jan. 4, 2026, or later:
- Your annuity begins accruing Feb. 1, 2026.
- Your first payment is expected mid-March 2026.
- Applications can typically remain in HR review through February.
- As long as your package reaches Payroll Review by the end of February, your retirement payment will not be delayed.
VSIP payments will be issued with your final NASA paycheck. We do not expect any delays to VSIP payments. Even if your retirement application is not finalized by your retirement date it will not delay your VSIP.
Lump sum annual leave payments for employees retiring Dec. 28, 2025, through Jan. 10, 2026, are expected to be paid around Feb. 13, 2026. Even if your retirement application is not finalized by your retirement date it will not delay your lump sum leave payment.
All NASA issued payments, to include your last paycheck, VSIP, and lump sum leave, will be deposited into the same bank account used for your NASA payroll. Updates made in the Online Retirement Application (ORA) do not affect NASA payroll. ORA updates only apply to your future retirement annuity.
Understanding Online Retirement Application StatusesIn Process/Not Started:
- The application is with the employee for action. The NSSC cannot move it forward until the employee completes required steps. This is the only stage at which an employee can adjust or make changes to their application in ORA.
In HR Review:
- Your application is actively being worked by the NSSC Retirement Services team. Thousands of retirements are in the queue, so please be patient. Once your application is in HR Review (or beyond) you cannot make any changes. If you have a change that needs to be made, submit a Web Inquiry to the NSSC.
In Applicant Review:
- The application is back with the employee for final certification. Once completed, the status will update to In HR Finalized.
In HR Finalized:
- The NSSC has completed its portion and will release the package to payroll.
In Payroll Review:
- Your application is no longer with NASA. It is with the Department of the Interior, Interior Business Center (IBC), NASA’s payroll provider.
- Applications typically remain in Payroll Review for about 30 days after your retirement date while payroll records close. IBC will then certify the package and submit it to OPM.
- Do not change your email address once you begin your retirement application. ORA does not allow email updates mid-process.
- Changing your email requires deleting your application and starting over, which can significantly delay your place in the queue.
- You may update your preferred email later in OPM Services Online once your case transfers to OPM.
- The FERS group retirement counseling sessions have been extended to accommodate additional participants and are full. If you are not able to attend one of these sessions or may otherwise find the information helpful, you can watch a previously recorded session. To jump to a specific topic, see the recording time stamps.
- A final CSRS counseling session will be held Dec. 23. Eligible employees have already received a Teams meeting invitation via their personal email address. If you missed this invitation, you may submit a Web Inquiry to the NSSC to have it resent.
- A Retiree’s Guide for Preparing to Retire
- Benefits and Retirement Information
- Retirement Quick Guide
- OPM Retirement & Insurance Publications
- OPM Retirement FAQs
- Online Retirement Application (ORA): Do’s and Don’ts
- Continuation of Life Insurance Election, SF 2818
- CSRS Spousal Consent to Survivor Election
- FERS Spousal Consent to Survivor Election
- Withholding Certificate for Periodic Pension or Annuity Payments, W-4P
- Medicare Request for Employment Information (only applicable for employees who are over age 65 and enrolling in Medicare during a Special Enrollment Period)
- Guidance on Reviewing and Updating Beneficiary Forms
- Voluntary Contribution Election (only for CSRS employees who have participated in the Voluntary Contribution Program)
Courts can issue orders that award benefits to legally separated spouses, former spouses, and children of current employees, former employees, and retirees under the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) and the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS). NASA cannot advise an employee, an employee’s spouse, or an attorney on how to draft a court order to award CSRS or FERS benefits. This is the task of the attorneys involved.
The NSSC cannot provide estimates that would require speculation about future promotions, program changes, or any other non-factual information and does not prepare estimates for employees who are not close to retirement. Official computations are made by OPM only at the time benefits become payable.
If you are involved in a divorce, legal separation, or annulment, you should provide the NSSC with a copy of your court order to expedite the processing of your retirement in the future.
Action required: Mail a court-certified copy of the court order to the address below and upload a copy in your ORA account:
- Attention: Retirement Services
NSSC
Bldg 1111, Jerry Hlass Rd
Stennis Space Center, MS 35929
NASA Astronaut Jonny Kim Returns to Earth
NASA Astronaut Jonny Kim Returns to Earth
The Soyuz MS-27 spacecraft is seen as it lands in a remote area near the town of Zhezkazgan, Kazakhstan on Dec. 9, 2025, with Expedition 73 NASA astronaut Jonny Kim, and Roscosmos cosmonauts Sergey Ryzhikov and Alexey Zubritsky aboard.
The trio returned to Earth after logging 245 days in space as members of Expeditions 72 and 73 aboard the International Space Station. While aboard the orbiting laboratory, Kim contributed to a wide range of scientific investigations and technology demonstrations.
For more than 25 years, people have lived and worked continuously aboard the International Space Station, advancing scientific knowledge and making research breakthroughs that are not possible on Earth. The station is a critical testbed for NASA to understand and overcome the challenges of long-duration spaceflight and to expand commercial opportunities in low Earth orbit.
See more photos from the landing.
Image credit: NASA/Bill Ingalls
NASA Astronaut Jonny Kim Returns to Earth
The Soyuz MS-27 spacecraft is seen as it lands in a remote area near the town of Zhezkazgan, Kazakhstan on Dec. 9, 2025, with Expedition 73 NASA astronaut Jonny Kim, and Roscosmos cosmonauts Sergey Ryzhikov and Alexey Zubritsky aboard.
The trio returned to Earth after logging 245 days in space as members of Expeditions 72 and 73 aboard the International Space Station. While aboard the orbiting laboratory, Kim contributed to a wide range of scientific investigations and technology demonstrations.
For more than 25 years, people have lived and worked continuously aboard the International Space Station, advancing scientific knowledge and making research breakthroughs that are not possible on Earth. The station is a critical testbed for NASA to understand and overcome the challenges of long-duration spaceflight and to expand commercial opportunities in low Earth orbit.
See more photos from the landing.
Image credit: NASA/Bill Ingalls
NASA Demonstrates Safer Skies for Future Urban Air Travel
2 min read
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater) NASA engineer Hanbong Lee demonstrates capabilities to manage busy urban airspace traffic during a recent simulation at NASA’s Ames Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley.NASA/Brandon Torres-NavarreteNASA is helping shape the future of urban air travel with a new simulation that will manage how electric air taxis and drones can successfully operate within busy areas.
The demonstration, held at NASA’s Ames Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley earlier this year, focused on a system called the Strategic Deconfliction Simulation, which helps coordinate flight plans before takeoff, reducing the risk of conflicts in busy urban environments
At the event, researchers demonstrated NASA’s Situational Viewer and Demand-Capacity Balancing Monitor, which visualizes air traffic and adjusts flight plans in real time. The simulation demonstrated traffic scenarios involving drone operations throughout the Dallas-Fort Worth area, testing how preplanned flights could improve congestion and manage the demand and capacity of the airspace – ensuring that all aircraft can operate smoothly even in crowded conditions.
Working with industry partners is critical to NASA’s efforts to develop and refine technologies needed for future air mobility. During the simulation, the company, ANRA Technologies, demonstrated its fleet and vertiport management systems, which are designed to support the coordination of multiple aircraft and ground operations.
“Simulating these complex environments supports broader efforts to ensure safe integration of drones and other advanced vehicles into the US airspace,” said Hanbong Lee, engineer at NASA Ames. “By showcasing these capabilities, we’re delivering critical data and lessons learned to support efforts at NASA and industry.”
This demonstration is another step toward the NASA team’s plan to hold a technical capability level simulation in 2026. This upcoming simulation would help shape the development of services aimed at managing aircraft flying in urban areas.
The simulation was created through a NASA team from its Air Mobility Pathfinders project, part of the agency’s continuing work to find solutions for safely integrating innovative new aircraft such as air taxis into U.S. cities and the national airspace. By developing advanced evaluations and simulations, the project supports safe, scalable, and publicly trusted air travel in urban areas, paving the way for a future where air taxis and drones are a safe and reliable part of everyday life.
The project falls under NASA’s Airspace Operations and Safety Program, which works to enable safe and efficient aviation transportation.
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