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A 230-million-year-old fossil found in Argentina shows that the evolution of sauropod dinosaurs’ long necks began earlier than previously thought

A 230-million-year-old fossil found in Argentina shows that the evolution of sauropod dinosaurs’ long necks began earlier than previously thought

In 1992, three physicists began an argument about how many numbers we need to fully describe the universe. Their surprisingly long-running quarrel takes us to the heart of what’s truly real

In 1992, three physicists began an argument about how many numbers we need to fully describe the universe. Their surprisingly long-running quarrel takes us to the heart of what’s truly real

The global average concentration of CO2 surged by 3.5 parts per million to reach 423.9 ppm last year, fuelling worries that the planet’s ability to soak up excess carbon is weakening

The global average concentration of CO2 surged by 3.5 parts per million to reach 423.9 ppm last year, fuelling worries that the planet’s ability to soak up excess carbon is weakening

Women’s brains age more slowly than men’s, but they still have higher rates of Alzheimer’s disease

Use cases for smart materials in space exploration keep cropping up everywhere. They are used in everything from antenna deployments on satellites to rover deformation and reformation. One of the latest ideas is to use them to transform the solar sails that could primarily be used as a propulsion system for a mission into a heat shield when that mission reaches its final destination. A new paper from Joseph Ivarson and Davide Guzzetti, both of Auburn’s Department of Aerospace Engineering, and published in Acta Astronautica, describes how the idea might work and lists some potential applications exploring various parts of the solar system.

Economists, bankers and even the boss of OpenAI are warning of a rapidly inflating AI bubble. If and when it bursts, what will happen to the technological breakthroughs of the past few years?

Economists, bankers and even the boss of OpenAI are warning of a rapidly inflating AI bubble. If and when it bursts, what will happen to the technological breakthroughs of the past few years?

No communication or navigation, faulty electronics and collision risk. At ESA’s mission control in Darmstadt, teams faced a scenario unlike any before: a solar storm of extreme magnitude. Fortunately, this nightmare unfolded not in reality, but as part of the simulation campaign for Sentinel-1D, pushing the boundaries of spacecraft operations and space weather preparedness.

Rather randomly I’ve just returned from a theatre tour where my science show featured yeast in one of the experiments, so when research about yeast surviving Martian conditions crossed my desk, it immediately piqued my interest. These microscopic fungi that help our bread rise and our beer ferment might just have what it takes to endure one of the Solar System's harshest environments.

Mars is a planet of mystery! Its surface today is cold and dry, yet evidence suggests it was once home to flowing water. Most of the planet's remaining ice sits locked away at the poles, but recent observations have detected signals of hydrogen in equatorial regions that could indicate buried ice deposits where the environment should be too warm for ice to survive. How did frozen water end up at Mars's equator? It seems we might find the answer in Martian volcanoes.

White dwarfs are stellar corpses, the slowly cooling remnants of stars that ran out of fuel billions of years ago. Our Sun will eventually share this fate, collapsing into a compact object so dense that the heavier it becomes, the smaller it shrinks. This rather strange property is just one of the aspects of white dwarfs that makes them utterly fascinating and occasionally, utterly baffling. Sometimes we find white dwarfs as part of binary systems and they are usually cool and gently radiating their energy out into space. A team of astronomers have recently discovered a peculiar class of these binary systems that defies expectations. The pair of white dwarfs are orbiting each other faster than once per hour and exhibiting temperatures between 10,000 and 30,000 degrees Kelvin, significantly hotter than expected and twice their usual size.

Thoracic surgeon Jonathan Villena explains why early screening for lung cancer is critical—even for those without symptoms.

Video: 00:05:04

English ESA Open Day 2025: An Unforgettable Journey Through Space Science at ESAC

On 4 October 2025, the European Space Agency opened the doors of ESAC – the European Space Astronomy Centre near Madrid – for an inspiring day of discovery. Visitors had the opportunity to explore ESA’s window to the Universe, where missions studying our Solar System, the Milky Way and the distant Universe are operated and analysed.

Throughout the day, guests met ESA scientists and engineers, learned about missions such as Gaia, XMM-Newton, and JUICE, and experienced hands-on activities that brought the wonders of astrophysics and planetary science to life. Interactive exhibits, talks, and guided tours showcased how ESA’s science missions are expanding our understanding of the cosmos.

More than two thousand participants of all ages enjoyed an unforgettable day filled with curiosity, innovation, and a shared passion for exploring the Universe.

Spanish Día de Puertas Abiertas de la ESA 2025: Un viaje inolvidable por la ciencia espacial en ESAC

El 4 de octubre de 2025, la Agencia Espacial Europea (ESA) abrió las puertas de ESAC – el Centro Europeo de Astronomía Espacial, cerca de Madrid – para una jornada inspiradora dedicada al descubrimiento. Los visitantes tuvieron la oportunidad única de adentrarse en el corazón del programa científico de la Agencia Espacial Europea, la ventana de la ESA al Universo, donde se operan y analizan misiones que estudian nuestro Sistema Solar, la Vía Láctea y el espacio profundo.

Charlas, exposiciones y visitas guiadas mostraron cómo las misiones científicas de la ESA amplían nuestro conocimiento del cosmos. A lo largo del día, los asistentes pudieron conocer a científicos e ingenieros de la ESA, descubrir misiones como Gaia, XMM-Newton y JUICE, y participar en actividades interactivas que acercaron la astrofísica y la ciencia planetaria al público de todas las edades. 

Más de dos mil personas disfrutaron de una jornada inolvidable y llena de curiosidad, innovación y pasión por explorar el Universo.

It rains on the Sun! Although not in any way we'd recognise from Earth. In the Sun's corona, the superheated atmosphere that extends millions of kilometres above its visible surface, cooler blobs of plasma occasionally form and fall back downward in what astronomers are calling coronal rain. Until now, the mechanism behind the rain has remained a mystery especially during solar flares where it seems to accelerate but researchers at the University of Hawaii Institute for Astronomy have finally cracked the puzzle.

Scientists have begun to piece together the origin story of a cataclysmic collision between two black holes that met their fate on an unusual orbital path. The merger, designated GW200208_222617 (that really rolls of the tongue,) stands out among gravitational wave detections as one of the rare events showing clear signs of orbital eccentricity, meaning the black holes followed a squashed, oval shaped orbit rather than a circular one as they spiralled toward their final encounter.

You can only describe a black hole by its mass and its spin. And maybe it’s charge. But allow us to propose a new criteria: the personal experience. Some black holes have seen things… Experienced the laws of physics at their most extreme. And today we’ll tell their stories. The more of the sky we observe, the more bizarre situations we find black holes in. Let’s explore!

Show Notes

• AI space content quality problem
• Star–black hole interaction behind SN 2023ZXD
• How BH–core mergers can trigger supernovae
• Accretion beyond the Eddington limit (e.g., LID568, ~40×)
• Mass gap challenges (e.g., GW231123 intermediate-mass BHs)
• Recoil kicks/ejected BHs (e.g., GW190412, ~50 km/s)
• BH size extremes: IGR J17091 to ~36-billion-M☉ candidate
• Primordial black holes: formation & detection prospects
• Early-universe BH/galaxy formation: mergers + direct collapse
• Science evolves: new data reshapes theories

Transcript

Fraser Cain: 

Welcome to Astronomy Cast, our weekly facts-based journey through the cosmos, where we help you understand not only what we know, but how we know what we know. I’m Fraser Cain, I’m the publisher of Universe Today. With me as always is Dr. Pamela Gay, a senior scientist for the Planetary Science Institute and the director of Cosmic Quest. Hey, Pamela, how are you doing?

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

I am doing well. I’m trying very hard not to burst out laughing at all the stuff our audience members are sticking in the chat, because right before we went live, we were talking about AI slop, and some of it is so bad, you can laugh or cry, and I usually do both. Both is a good answer.

Fraser Cain: 

Yeah, the recommendation that I make is go open up Chrome, open up a new incognito window, go to YouTube, do a search for whatever space topic is interesting to you, comets, space, James Webb, whatever, and you will see the sloppiest slop that ever slopped. And it is just, this is what YouTube is now showing to people when they come to their website, and not more legitimate science. So, what are you going to do?

You can only describe a black hole by its mass and its spin, and maybe its charge, but allow us to propose a new criteria, their personal experience. Some black holes have seen things, experienced the laws of physics at their most extreme, and today, will tell their stories. All right, you’ve got a bunch of stories queued up that are extreme black holes experiencing extreme experiences.

What’s your first one?

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

So, this is my so far favorite story of the year. A young 30 solar mass star was hanging out with its more massive previously sibling and made the mistake of consuming its sibling, which was a black hole at this point.

Fraser Cain: 

Right. So, what was the sort of series of events that led up to this, I guess, unfortunate mistake?

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

Right. So, the two stars were born with very different masses. The one started its life with about 30 solar masses.

The other one was significantly larger. We’re not sure how much larger because mass loss is a thing. But however big it started out, it ended up making a 10 solar mass black hole.

So, we have a binary system with a 10 solar mass black hole and a 30 solar mass regular everyday star. And due to drag forces, they were getting closer and closer to one another. And the 30 solar mass star made the unfortunate mistake of consuming that 10 solar mass black hole, which led to the black hole rapidly feeding on the contents of the star, the star changing in brightness over time.

And ultimately, the core of the star and the black hole together triggering one heck of a weird supernova. This object is Supernova 2023 ZXD. When they looked at its light curve, its light curve didn’t behave over time the way you would expect.

They went back through archival data, saw the system had been brightening over several years. And the research paper that came out of this is a spectacular example of, could it be this? Probably not because of this.

Could it be this? Probably not because of this. As they work through idea after idea.

And the thing that fit was star 8’s black hole, which is the opposite of what we’re used to. But at 30 solar masses, it was definitely the dominant player in the system.

Fraser Cain: 

Yeah. Yeah. I think our title on universe today, the story was star eats black hole and instantly regrets it.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

Yeah. We had very similar for EVSN.

Fraser Cain: 

Yeah.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

It’s my favorite story this year. Maybe my favorite in many years.

Fraser Cain: 

Yes. Just gloriously wrong. And so what do we think would have happened?

Like, you know, we, back in the day there was the star, the star with 30 times the mass of the sun. And then there was a much bigger star.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

Yeah.

Fraser Cain: 

It died first because the more massive you are, the shorter your life.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

Right.

Fraser Cain: 

Detonated as a supernova and left a black hole remnant. And now you’ve got this binary star system. And then the two got closer and closer and closer until the black hole went into the star.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

Yeah, that is exactly what happened. And it all comes down to the fact that, yeah, the black hole was definitely nibbling on its companion as frictional forces brought them closer and closer together. But once it’s inside that atmosphere, it’s definitely a merger event.

And it’s definitely the blue star, which has gotten stirred up and bloated out a little bit, doing the consuming. And while that black hole inside the 30 mass star is going nom, nom, nom, nom, nom, nom on everything around it, it took time for the core and the black hole to merge and explode as a supernova.

Fraser Cain: 

And what caused the explosion? Like, why did it go supernova? And why did the black hole not just gobble up the star from within and disappear it?

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

It all comes down to the rates at which things can happen. So the 30 solar mass star, which was no longer 30 solar masses, to be clear, mass loss also did it in. It had a core that was already fairly evolved.

It was already on its way to going supernova at some point in its future. And the black hole simply accelerated the process. So the black hole itself couldn’t eat all of its surroundings fast enough to prevent a supernova.

What it could do is begin that core collapse process that prevented further nuclear reactions from going on. A star is carefully balanced between gravity trying to compress the entire situation, light pressure pushing out, trying to keep the star being a star. But the second you don’t have all the nuclear reactions you need going on in the core, the outer layers of the star are no longer supported by light and they’re going to collapse down.

As they collapse down, the higher densities that they get just because they’re now becoming a crumpled ball of star, those higher densities allow new nuclear reactions to go on, which explode out light, creating the supernova we see. So it’s this process of you kill what’s going on in the core, the light shuts off, everything collapses, generates new light that supernovas out the outermost layers while the core collapses to form whatever it forms in the end.

Fraser Cain: 

All right, what have you got next?

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

Oh man, there are so many different things to choose from and I’m just not going to get through nearly as many as I wanted. So I’m going to talk about LID568. This is a black hole in a dwarf galaxy that is feeding at rates a star should not be feeding at.

So there’s this thing called the Eddington limit and it is how we say black holes should be limited in what they should do. The idea is that as material tries to stream in, it gets hot, it gets dense, it generates light. This is a recurring theme in the universe.

That light then pushes out the material, preventing further infall, cutting off the feeding frenzy the black hole is experiencing.

Fraser Cain: 

Right, and this is the same kind of limit that we see with stars. We don’t see stars that have a billion times the mass of the sun. We see stars with about a hundred times the mass of the sun at the most and that’s because as they get bigger, hotter, more radiation, at a certain point they’re just blowing away any other material that’s going to try to fall into them and they just can’t get any bigger.

And black holes can do the same thing with the accretion disk that builds up around them.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

But for reasons that my read-through of the discovery paper didn’t see an answer to, this thing is feeding at 40 times the Eddington limit.

Fraser Cain: 

Right.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

And so suddenly we are discovering that black holes are capable, in some circumstances, of consuming material much faster and more thoroughly in a rapid, sudden epoch of growth than what we had expected. And researchers are actually thinking this particular star got all grown up in essentially one massive feeding frenzy that broke the limits we’d previously attempted to put on these things.

Fraser Cain: 

Yeah. There was a couple of interesting things about this story. So they said, using this idea of the Eddington limit, they said, well, if you sort of rolled this black hole back to the beginning of when it formed shortly after the beginning of the universe, it would have had to have formed from a star that was about 10,000 times the mass of the sun was one option.

The other option is that it was a direct collapse black hole, that it just went straight into from cloud of gas and dust to black hole and then grew from there. And those would help you explain a black hole that you saw with this kind of size. But the sort of really interesting idea is that there are ways that black holes can maybe cool themselves down, that they can actually allow inflows of material that gets around this Eddington limit by artificially cooling the regions around them as well.

So there’s a lot of, you know, obviously the universe can do things that are weirder than we had ever anticipated. And this just shows like your theories are great, but at a certain point, you know, reality has some lessons to explain to us.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

And this idea that black holes can form at masses that a stellar mass star going straight into a black hole can’t explain is something that comes up over and over again. So another example of things behaving weirdly is a LIGO discovery GW231123, which is beautifully symmetric. This particular paper had 10 and a half pages of authors.

I just want to call out collaborations are amazing and sometimes eat a lot of papers. So don’t print those things out. This particular merger was between a 103 and a 137 solar mass black hole.

So this is two intermediate mass black holes merging together into a larger intermediate mass black hole. And the thing about this is both of the black holes that went into the merger fell in what was supposed to be a gap in black holes formed through stars. What happens is as a star gets bigger and bigger and bigger, it eventually reaches the point where the core completely combusts the entire system.

This pair instability means that at lower masses, sure, it collapses down, has a black hole in the core. At higher masses, it can overcome this. Sure, collapses down, becomes a black hole again.

But in this gap, when it tries to do that, the helium in the core is like, I’m not going to have anything to do with that. And it explodes completely. So here we have a system.

Fraser Cain: 

There’s like no remnant, no black hole, nothing.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

There’s nothing, nothing left behind, all gone. And here we have a system with two black holes that both fall into the black hole mass gap. And the question becomes, were we completely wrong on the mass gap?

Is there another mechanism for forming black holes? Or is this a statistically improbable system that was able to go from two things that formed black holes that merged, two things that formed black holes that merged, and then those black holes merged to get this eventual outcome? And the statistics on how hard would it be to get that double black hole binary system that forms, so you start out with a system of four black holes, and then you ultimately end up with one.

How difficult is that? And it’s not entirely improbable, but it’s at least 25% possible and 75% improbable. So probably not.

We’re learning black holes do not follow the rules, people. They do not care.

Fraser Cain: 

And we talked about a similar story, I feel like within the last year, same situation. Although one of the black holes shouldn’t have been. The other one was fine, but one of them was in that mass gap.

And so the fact that we’ve seen now two of them, maybe more, I’m not sure exactly how many LIGO has seen, is showing that either this theory that black holes aren’t formed from this certain mass of black holes, or that there’s some other mechanism. And the one that’s really exciting, which would also explain the previous story, is that you have primordial black holes. So you have black holes that were formed early on in the universe of any mass, some that were the mass of an asteroid, some that were the mass of a billion times the mass of the sun.

And then you can have any mass you like be able to meet with each other and merge. And you’re not dependent on that process of stars forming bigger black holes, meeting other black holes, meeting other black holes, and eventually building up that chain of events to get the kind of collisions that we’re seeing.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

And this is one of those things where, again, I think the answer is going to be both. That we’re going to realize that, yes, there were primordial black holes, and there’s no other really good way to explain all the stuff JWST is finding in the early universe. That we’re going to realize that, in many cases, you have giant blobs of material that collapse straight into a black hole thanks to turbulence and other cooling factors that are able to take place.

It’s just like what we’ve found with galaxies. It used to be that people thought we were going to one day realize that it was either a hierarchical merging of smaller systems into progressively larger systems, or that it was clouds of gas that collapsed down into the size we see generally. And it turns out the answer is both.

That early in the universe, there were massive elliptical galaxies that formed, but there were also hierarchical growth that led to things like spiral galaxies we live in.

Fraser Cain: 

All right. What’s your next example?

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

So we’ve been talking a lot about massive black holes because, I mean, we all love massive black holes, but we’re starting to find small black holes. Now, neutron stars can’t, for questionable values of can’t, be larger than 2.25 solar masses because above that, the neutron degeneracy pressure can’t support the star and it collapses. Now, there’s always people who are moving that limit up or down by tuning different parameters in the system.

But around 2.25 solar masses is where the limit in the size of neutron stars is. And in looking at stellar mass black holes, there appears to be this gap where there’s like nothing around three or four solar masses. And it’s not entirely clear why there’s nothing in this particular mass range.

But we’re starting to find smaller systems. One of these is G3425. It has a mass that looks to be around 3.8 solar masses. It’s definitely beneath four solar masses. And it looks like part of the way it got that way was through having jets. So we need to figure out how do you take a truly massive object, have it collapse, leave behind only its core, and in the process, shed enough material that you end up with just the right size of a tiny core.

Fraser Cain: 

Wow. And so was this happening like as it was forming?

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

Yeah.

Fraser Cain: 

Huh. Very cool. I’ve got a story up here and let me know if this is in your list.

GW190412, the recoil event.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

No, that one I don’t have anymore.

Fraser Cain: 

All right. All right.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

The universe is big.

Fraser Cain: 

Yeah. So this is a black hole that was discovered in 2019 between two black holes. One was eight times the mass of the sun.

The other one was four times the mass of the sun. And this is one of the largest discrepancies in masses between two black holes. You had one that was double the mass of the other one.

And so the question that the astronomers were wondering was, would you get a recoil? Would you get a kick because you had this big difference between the black holes? And so they were able to sort of carefully examine the collision in the LIGO data and determined that, yes, indeed, after these black holes came together, because their masses were so different, it was kind of like a thruster on the side of the finished black hole that then gave it a kick at about 50 kilometers per second to the side.

So it was just because it was asymmetrical, as the black holes came together, then you got this kick, this recoil. And it happened inside a globular cluster. And so the recoil was enough to kick the black hole out of the globular cluster.

And so one of the big expectations is that the place to look for intermediate mass black holes is in these globular clusters, that you’ve got a lot of stars. They’re very close together. A lot of them were massive.

They died, became black holes, black holes merged, and so on. But they have found a few, but not as many as that they were expecting. And so now, maybe, over the course of enough time, a 50-kilometer-per-second kick is going to push your black hole right out of your cluster.

And so it might be that these black holes, they’re forming, if they’re not exactly equivalent masses, you’re going to get these kicks. These things are going to be spat out into the larger galaxy. And a lot of these globular clusters are outside of the plane of the galaxy.

And so they’re just spat out randomly into the universe.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

Conservation of momentum is a bear. This is literally the black hole equivalent of what happens when, don’t do this with human beings, your AI-driven three-wheeler collides with your AI-driven SUV, and you end up going primarily in the direction of the SUV’s mass. Yeah.

Okay, that is impressive. So let’s look at the other extreme. This is my favorite discovery story of a black hole.

It wasn’t behaving badly. It was just behaving bigly, to use a word that I shouldn’t. Extremely, yeah.

Yeah. Hugely. Its distance is 5 billion light years.

Its mass is 36 billion solar masses. And it’s in the cosmic horseshoe galaxy. And what was happening is this really massive galaxy was getting used to study gravitationally lensed background objects.

And they were working to try and deconvolve what’s going on with all these gravitationally lensed things. And used the Hubble Space Telescope to do some very sophisticated observations of the core of the galaxy. And it was enough to be able to measure the motions of stars and gas down in the core of the galaxy and get the mass of the central black hole.

Normally, you can’t do this with any but the closest of the massive galaxies. But this black hole is so unbelievably large that even at 5 billion light years, they were able to use spectroscopy to measure velocities. And it’s just, yeah, it’s just awesome.

Accidental science is the best science sometimes.

Fraser Cain: 

Yeah. And I think a lot of people were listening to this episode. You’re familiar maybe with TON618, I think is the name of the black hole.

And that was largely considered the most massive black hole that’s ever been seen in that same kind of region. And now it looks like this new cosmic horseshoe is a serious contender, perhaps the winner of the most massive supermassive black hole in the universe that we’ve ever found.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

It’s definitely the winner of the best discovery story for a massive black hole.

Fraser Cain: 

Right, right, right. But yeah, it is a contender for the most massive, the biggest. Check the Guinness Book of World Records shortly.

And that might be the black hole that’s in there. What else you got?

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

So that was really my list of favorites. Um, the star eating the black hole. I mean, there’s a few others out there.

Chandra found IGR J17091, which is a contender for being the smallest black hole. It’s somewhere between three and 10 solar masses looking closer to three than to 10, but they don’t have enough data to say for certain how tiny it is. And I just want to point out that we are now looking at things that are ranging from between IGR J17091 and G3425, which are both down around three solar masses.

And then the cosmic horseshoe galaxy central supermassive black hole, 36 billion solar masses. We’re looking at roughly a 10 billion solar mass factor, like multiplier of 10 billion between the smallest and the largest we’ve seen so far. And there’s absolutely no physical limit on how small or large a black hole can be.

The only limits are how do you form it? And, and this is where to get the small ones, we need to master mass loss to get the biggest ones. We need to master mass inflow and physics likes to break both of those things.

And so primordial gets us, okay, so what leftover small things are floating around our universe.

Fraser Cain: 

So speaking of that, um, I’ve got one last story then before we can close this out. And this is a prediction. So this idea of primordial black holes, we brought this up earlier.

One of the, if these things are out there, then it could have been formed at any mass and the, um, the smallest ones, the least massive ones will evaporate and have already evaporated. And so there is a sort of the smallest possible black hole in the universe is the one that is about to evaporate.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

Yes.

Fraser Cain: 

And so people have, have done some calculations and that if this is happening, our modern neutrino observatories should, with about a 90% chance detect the presence of this last gasp. When a black hole evaporates, you get this sort of burst of high energy radiation neutrinos and that we now have detectors that are sensitive enough to find this. And so within about a decade, if, if this actually happens, we should detect the burst of a black hole evaporating.

And so that’ll tell us whether or not these primordial black holes exist.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

And, and the only thing we have to remember is this could very well be like all the predictions of protons decaying, where we have these theories that say this thing should be happening and then we just never see it. And, and this is the reason we keep doing science is we are building a picture of a universe that when we create our science has to conform to everything we know is in the picture. It makes predictions about things that haven’t been seen yet, but until we see everything, which we’re never going to be able to do, we can’t fill in all the details and we’re going to periodically be wrong.

And that’s kind of awesome because that means there’s new physics waiting to be discovered.

Fraser Cain: 

I’m sure this will not be the last time we’ve done a story of an episode that is about this kind of thing that we’re going to find exoplanets, black holes, galaxies, things doing extreme things. Thanks, Pamela.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

Thank you, Fraser. And thank you so much to everyone out there who is watching us live. And especially thanks to all of our patrons.

Thank you all so very much.

Fraser Cain: 

Sounds good. All right. Thanks, Pamela.

We’ll see you all next week.

Dr. Pamela Gay: 

Bye-bye.

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Impulse Space, the California-based venture founded by veteran SpaceX engineer Tom Mueller, has unveiled its proposed architecture for delivering medium-sized payloads to the moon, starting as early as 2028.